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Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) presented his philosophy on the social contract theory. In his theory, Hobbes proposed that rational individuals create a rational government that is based on class. Hobbes stated that have self-interest by nature and it is, therefore, rational for them to have moral behaviors so as to get the best of this self-interest.
Aristotle’s book on rhetoric was one of his longest literary works while Plato’s books were dialogues in form of literary works that were used to portray the impact of human speech when the purposes of a speaker are clear without selfishness. This rhetoric was observed from a speech in political meetings, individual talks as well as courts of law (Herrick, 2005).
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A person's motive might be unreliable for a quite different reason, however. For suppose a person's rationale for acting makes no reference to the fact that her action is dutiful. No matter how strong, invariable and available such a motive is, it will still not be perfectly probable that if it motivates a person, she will perform a dutiful action.
The ideals of Kant with the deontological viewpoint would be opposed to the utilitarianist approach. In this instance, there is a focus on actions promoting the greatest good for the greatest number. In the scenario, the approach would be to attack al Qaeda and to use whatever means necessary to stop them from functioning.
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Some of the key thinkers that were influenced by Marx include Lenin, Trotsky, Gramsci, Stalin, Mao, Lukacs, Korsch, the Frankfurt School, the Existentialist Marxists, the Della Volpe School, Structural Marxists, British Marxist, Weydemeyer and Sore, and the British and American New Left (McLellan 1979).
Instead of advocating for political involvement with the state, Epicurus advocated isolation. This meant living without glory or wealth or power, but with anonymity and small pleasures like friends and food. Given the choice between Stoicism and Epicureanism, many Roman politicians opted for the more minimalist ethical system.
Important decisions such as who should be found innocent and who should be put to death for their crimes were frequently solved through emotional ploys and business deals rather than logical facts, truth, and justice. It was these values that Socrates was upholding in refusing his friends’ offers to help him escape.
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John Rawls's arguments post the ability of original citizens to focus on their future behind the comfort of their sets and the veil of ignorance of what the future unfolds like for them. John however in his arguments retaliates that the society members involved in the forecasting and working on their future do not necessarily know what the future position they would hold. (Audard, 2007, pg. 193)
Thus, the essay has proven that John Rawls’ principles of justice are not only useful but also superior over others such as utilitarian accounts concerning these specific party constraints. The principles vouch for equality in society without obscuring the rights of any member of the society. The application of these principles will draw a society closer to the achievement of such an endeavor.
Accordingly, while for example, the African American philosophers of race endeavored to highlight the white aspect of American philosophy dwelling on the controversial ideas and treatises of black scholars such as Du Bois, Franz Fanon and James Baldwin, Feminist philosophers, on the other hand, were absorbed in discussing gender inequalities and underlined the “maleness of philosophy.”
Walking through one’s life blindly only in the pursuit of meager pleasures or even over-analyzing one’s every experience without fully embracing the moment, both can be detrimental to the value of one’s existence. Kierkegaard, like many of the philosophers before him, has set up a model that all individuals can live by, and each stage feeds off the one prior.
By diminishing man’s natural freedom and voluntarily entering into a civil obligation via the creation of a civitas, man has given his right to govern himself over to the sovereign Actor and is authorized “to exercise it on their behalf” (Oakeshott, 1981; 287). Thus, the civitas is to declare, interpret, and administer rules of conduct which the covenanters pledge to follow.
Nietzsche criticized the philosophers for coming up with hollow theories that were not backed by observation but by mere assumptions. He hoped that the philosophers of the future will be characterized by an experimental method; they would have a hypothesis and will follow the conclusion with sound arguments and justifications.
With such a general definition, one might begin to understand the complexities involved in studying philosophy as it seems to encompass just about all knowledge pursuits. Perhaps part of the confusion in trying to define the term can be found in the early days of the science when it applied almost universally to all avenues of knowledge in ancient Greece.
The author states that Buddhism can be considered as one of the earliest and most established religions in human civilization. In the study conducted the main objective is to present a particular perspective on the Pure Land (Shin) and the Chan (Zen) schools of Buddhism. One of the main teachings of Buddhism is the concept of karma.
Presentism holds the assumption that objects and elements that exist are those that are in the present. Eternalism provides the understanding that the past, present, and future illusionary elements of time are used in demarcating time frames. This means that objects and events exist eternally.
Railton did try to defend the objections of act consequentialism as a cold, unfeeling, and demanding theory. However, our discussion seems to find the response of Railton sufficient to warrant its success. It becomes difficult for a person to use the act consequentialist theories that allow deviation of methods from the intended goals.
There exist a big difference between happiness and meaning and happiness without meaning does not lead to a good life. In addition, happiness is not the sole measure for a good life since it is viewed as a temporary state which transcends the self by feeding a person’s needs that satisfies their own selfish gains which in turn rule it out as an important aspect of a prudentially good life.
Supremacy and independence were recognized as essential aspects of a state by the turn of the century as Davis indicates. Political power was also identified as central along with the law. This article begins by reviewing how various writers defined state in both the modern and pre-modern eras. With the report in mind, then I turn to how the criteria for statehood changed in the 20th century.
Are dreams just dreams and meaningless? In his work, Freud examines the ideology of dreams, their inception, and interpretation. Dreams are vital for the stability of the unconscious mind because they are the key representation of the operations by the unconscious mind. Freud's argument emanates from his own dream that he found to have had a meaning of what was in his unconscious mind.
Happiness is generally aimed at making very deliberate moves towards an imaginary final end where one develops physically, emotionally, and intellectually by utilizing distinctly human capacities. A study of the philosopher’s works reveals that the human function is a consequence of rational soul activity compliant with virtues.
The difference between common love and heavenly love is clearly brought out in the paper. Heavenly love is the joining of two people who are in love and join in both body and soul. I have also talked about how love, according to Plato, drives people into doing good things and not ugly ones. It brings people closer to God since God is beautiful and love is beautiful.
It has been proven that the irreducibly complex theory does not hold since facts have shown that there is not one instance that a given system is not functional. For instance, in the eubacterial flagellum, it has been noted that there is not one instance that it has not been functional since its components have various functions apart from motility
Socrates was a mysterious figure identified through the works of later traditional writers and plays of his modern Aristophanes. His most notable philosophy, gathered from the writings of Plato, was the obligation to do what an individual thought was right even when facing widespread opposition, and the requirement to seek knowledge even when under resistance.
The essay will attempt to define the term enlightenment, its origin, and its use in the 18th century in accordance with renowned thinkers such as Immanuel Kant, Rene Descartes, Voltaire, and John Locke. Secondly, a discussion on how the question was answered by these thinkers will be presented broadly.
It is apparent that both of the antagonistic schools of thought stated in the preceding section often propose divergent opinions on which is the most ideal process in making a moral judgment. Against this background, it is prudent to define the concept of morality before embarking on the analysis of the utility of either reason or emotions.
Nozick is a harsh critique of Rawl’s “difference principle”, as according to him, this cannot ensure, that least advantaged persons in society can automatically share the earnings of their more successful fellow citizens, just merely due to social cooperation. However, going through both the works, certain questions arise.
In line with Lucaites and Condit’s (1999) assertion that contemporary usage of rhetoric should be considered in light of the past and present; it is arguable that classical rhetoric theory itself was rooted in context and that therefore linguistic usage is inherently derived from experiences and understanding of audience (p.3).
The author states that Buddhism is a religion based on the teachings of Gautam Buddha, who lived between 563 B.C. and 483 B.C. Buddha was a prince of Kapilavastu. He was very disturbed to see the suffering of human beings and decided to attain the truth of life which will help a human being to remove all the misery and suffering from life.
The media houses believe that this is a consequence of the new set of attitudes and behavior adopted by some women characters in television programs. It should be remembered that “these images explicitly portray female aggression as an instrumental act in contrast to the traditionally expressive stereotype of female aggression”.
Even the great Karl Marx was confused and there are many loopholes and errors in his theories. In particular, he did not understand fully what capitalism is about because it was something entirely new for everybody at that time. It was the first time such a political and economic system came into practice after feudalism.
Immanuel Kant is one of the successful philosophers who attempted to reconstruct the fundamentals of philosophy and succeeded to a considerable extent. His remarkable criticisms on the theories of metaphysics were encapsulated and summarized in Prolegomena; it sets forth a specific problem that is resolved with an extensive feasible argument.
Man is rational and therefore the happiness he has relies on reason. Happiness is dependent on the acquisition of moral character where a person exhibits the virtues of justice, courage, friendship, generosity, and citizenship in the person’s life. Happiness is found in an active but not a passive lifestyle.
It is argued that the value of a commodity should be equalized to the amount of labor put in the course of production. For this case, labor should be distinctively manual labor and whether direct or indirect, Marx postulates that it should be reflected within the value of the commodity (Wilicki, 1968).
Freud’s theory of dreams is famous and revered for putting forth a foundation for psychoanalysis that even psychiatrists use to deal with their patients. The theory supported the notion that normal and neuroticism cannot be sharply contrasted, and, building a foundation for psychoanalysis as a general theory of the mind that applied to everyone.
Freud developed a theory called psychoanalysis theory which seeks to explain the human motives of doing things. Freud believes that all of the human behavior is driven by two major instincts are life instincts and death instincts and that all these instincts come from the mind it is the mind that determines what an individual does and how they behave at all times.
The concept of what is considered good and what is not has been a debatable aspect in law-making over time. There have several bases that theorists have come with that tend to favor the assumption that the desires of the people and the benefits derived from satisfying these desires are what elaborates the acceptable moral extents.
According to the dream theory developed, Freud argued that dreams allow people to discharge unacceptable and unconscious wishes and urges. The dream is a disguised fulfillment of the repressed desire. It is disguised since the repressed desires could be either sexual or aggressive to urge the dreamer to wake up.
Sigmund Freud is considered by many as the founder of psychoanalysis. This is a result of his revolutionary works undertaking studies of dreams in his work. He came up with the theory of dreams and the interpretation of dreams. According to Freud, nothing is by chance, but rather each event is propelled by the subconscious part of the mind.
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Justice is illustrious by the entity to which it applies instead of a specific kind of moral concern. In some cases, it has been understood as legitimacy, impermissibility, or unfair disturbance by others. The author of the paper states that justice is also concerned with the permissibility of the assessed actions by justice.
As per Davidson constitutive normative aspect constrains the psychological behavior, which is not influenced due to any physical sciences. According to the findings of the paper, it can be said that the theory of anomalous monism is coined by Davidson and is seen as a nonreductive view about the relationship between the physical and the mental.
Rights do not apply to animals the way they apply to human beings. As far as human beings are concerned, rights apply to them because of their moral nature. Animal however does not possess moral agency and therefore are not accorded the same rights as human beings are. Animals have consciousness; they have desires and beliefs through which they act.
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King seeks to show that the possibility of travel into the past has some rather unexpected implications for the human condition – particularly with regard to the determinism/free-will debate. He starts by looking at Carlini et al’s starting point where they posed the question of whether the principle of self-consistency is really fundamental, or whether it can be derived from some other law.
Over the years, a number of activist groups have been on the forefront campaigning for the rights of non-human animals. Some believe that animals should be regarded as equal to human beings(Regan & Singer 1989). For example, Peter Singer observes that over time, there have been dramatic changes with regards to people’s attitudes on morality.
If a human being is deprived of the right to live then all the other rights become futile (Immanuel Kant, 1785). Euthanasia has brought about a lot of controversies throughout the world on issues regarding the right to life (Albanese, 1996.). Euthanasia is referred to as the act of shortening life painlessly so as to end suffering where the patient is not expected to recover.
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Induction or inductive reasoning refers to a form of a reasoning process whereby a conclusion is drawn from a certain case. It is reasoning from a precise case and obtaining a general rule. It draws conclusions from observations so as to make generalizations. In inductive reasoning, there is no logical movement from the premises to the conclusion.
Much of the modern dualistic belief in the separability of soul and body had its origins in Greek and Christian thought. Plato, the fifth century B.C. Greek philosophers believed that the body was a vessel containing the soul and that the mind was the immortal part of the soul that left the body at death to be reincarnated.
One of the discussions that have taken a central part in philosophy for sometime is the concern about the existence of right and wrong. Discussions concerning morality as well as ethical decision-making have been predominant throughout history especially concerning human conducts. Scholars such as Emmanuel Kant have been in the forefront advancing knowledge regarding morality.
Yet down the ages philosophers have found it problematic and have come up with various opposing views about scientific truth. Others say that science is all false while others believe it is ‘true, and still, others argue that some science might be true in the realist sense of ‘true, but say that science does not seek the truth.
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By evaluating several examples, the present paper concludes that human rights should be considered universal values as a minimal standard of protection of individuals but urges that consensus over the relative “universality” of rights is key to the resolution of controversies that arise due to this debate.