Males and females exercise behaviour regulation - Literature review Example

 A comparison of males and females (young and older adults) exercise behaviour regulation using the self determination theory Pleis and Lethbridge-Hejku (2006) studied Physical inactivity in the United States while Cavill et al (2006) studied a similar phenomenon in Europe. Both studies reveal widespread inactivity across all ages. Miles (2006) documents the role of regular exercise and activity, demonstrating the need to understand human motivation in these fields (Ingledew and Markland 2008). Like many other fields, sport (Pelletier et al 1995) and exercise (Rose et al 2005) apply the Self Determining Theory of Deci and Ryan (1985). The Self Determination Theory (SDT) is a general theory of human motivation that expounds on development and functioning of the human personality within social contexts. It analyses the extent to which human behaviour is volitional (Deci and Ryan 1985). One theory of motivation is the Organismic Integration Theory of Deci and Ryan (1985), which deals with the facets of extrinsic motivation and the contextual factors that promote or prevent their internalisation and integration in behavioural regulation. The authors established a classification where they structured motivation in the form of a continuum that covers the different degrees of self determination. The continuum is as follows: amotivation, external regulation, introjected, identified, integrated, and finally intrinsic regulation. This continuum represents increasing levels of autonomy. This is important because it makes the idea of self determination have a scale that can gauge an individual. With this, Deci and Ryan (1985) gave the world a meta-theory. The continuum recognises the possibility of growth as the individual internalises the extrinsic motivation factors (Deci and Ryan 2000). A motivation connotes the absence of intention to perform behaviour (Deci and Ryan 2000). External regulation is when behaviour tries to gain a reward or alternately to avoid punishment. Introjected regulation tries to prevent feelings of guilt and/or anxiety or maintain self esteem (Vallerand 2007). When people exhibit identified regulation, they consciously accept behaviour as important to them (Wilson et al 2008). Individuals with integrated regulation enact behaviour because the individuals feel it is part of their identity (Deci and Ryan 2000, p. 62). Autonomous forms of exercise behaviour regulation correspond to greater physical activity and exercise (Landry and Solomon 2004; Mullan and Markland 1997; Thogersen-Ntoumani and Ntoumanis 2006). Research on the Self Determination Theory has shown gender differences in the types of regulation of behaviour in various fields such as sport (Pelletier et al 1995) and exercise (Mulland and markland 1997; Rose et al 2005). This has brought to fore the role of gender differences in the motivation processes in SDT. I particularly note that Rose et al (2005) demonstrated that female exercisers reported greater levels of autonomous motivation than the males. However, Mullan and Markland (1997) had earlier demonstrated the exact opposite. Vlachopoulos (2010) attributes this contradiction to differential functioning in groups and proposes that there be evidence of measurement invariance (Millsap and Kwok 2004). Hoyle and Smith (1994) concur and put forth that if measurement invariance is not there, there will be a misinterpretation of group differences. The younger adults exist under social pressure and culturally accepted standards of beauty and thinness for females, and muscular physique for males (Presnell et al 2004). Ingledew and Markland (2006) conducted a research and found that appearance and weight motives corresponded to external motivation and, therefore, less participation. Health and fitness corresponded to greater identified regulation and, therefore, more participation. Social engagement corresponded with intrinsic regulation. Body image in younger adults may play a role in their exercise behaviour. MacCabe and Ricciardelli (2003) found that the percentage of boys wanting to be thinner was 17% to 30% while between 13 per cent to 48% want a larger body. Exercise is a method of managing weight. Pope et al (2004) conducted similar research and concurred with the earlier findings on body size in young adults. Body discrepancies correspond to decrease in autonomous motivation in males but an increase in autonomous motivation in females (Markland and Ingledew 2007). These findings reflect those of Ingledew and Sullivan (2002) to some extent. Umstattd and Hallam (2007) posit that older adults benefit more from physical activity than younger adults. There is clear evidence of the benefits that result from exercise and physical activity especially in older adults (Hawkins et al 2004). Older adults may experience similar pressures as those of younger adults but the general perception is that exercise for health is a major issue later in life (grodesky et al 2006). The study of exercise behaviour regulation in older adults is, therefore, primarily in the health domain (Hall et al 2008; Bandura 2004). The clear differences of perception and priorities between younger and older adults results in different approaches, in research. Behavioural Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire (BREQ) is used to measure self-determined motivation in exercise (Mullan et al 1997). This questionnaire measured external, introjected, identified, and intrinsic regulation. Markland and Tobin (2004) revised and completed the questionnaire and named it BREQ-2. Their study added another factor to the four in the original questionnaire: amotivation. The BREQ has been used by Markland and Tobin (2004) obtaining satisfactory psychometric measurements. The BREQ-2 questionnaire is standard in that it is a set of nineteen questions (Markland and Tobin 2004). Each question scores for a different degree of self determination. 5, 9, 12, and 19 score for a motivation. 1, 6, 11, and 16 score for external regulation. 2, 7, and 13 score for introjected regulation. 3, 8, 14, and 17 score for identified regulation. 4, 10, 15, and 18 score for intrinsic regulation. A Relative Autonomy Index (RAI) is a score that results from the subscales to show the degree of self determination. Weighted scores conform to a pattern. One disadvantage of RAI is that information loss ensues on application. It is, therefore, clear that exercise is an essential part of daily existence for both females and males, young and old. The approach to exercise and the drive that keeps people at it is in the domain of psychology. This literature review examines the various research findings and the BREQ tool in connection to the Self Determination theory. Bibliography Deci EL, Ryan R.M. 1985, ‘Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behaviour’. Plenum Press, New York, NY. Deci, E. L. & Ryan, R. M. 1985, The general causality orientations scale: Self determination in personality. Journal of Research in Personality; 19; 109-134. Ryan, R. M. & Deci, E. L. 2000, Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development and well-being. American Psychologist ; 55; 68-78. Markland, D. & Tobin, V. 2004, A modification to Behavioural Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire to include an assessment of amotivation, Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology; 26; 191-196. Mullan, E., & Markland, D. 1997, Variations in self-determination across the stages of change for exercise in adults, Motivation and Emotion, 21, 349–362. Mullan, E., Markland, D., & Ingledew, D. K. 1997, A graded conceptualisation of selfdetermination in the regulation of exercise behaviour: Development of a measure using confirmatory factor analytic procedures, Personality and Individual Differences, 23, 745–752. Millsap, R. E., & Kwok, O. (2004). Evaluating the impact of partial factorial invariance on selection in two populations. Psychological Methods, 9, 93-115. Ingledew, D.K., Markland, D. & Sheppard, K.E. (2004). Personality and self determination of exercise behaviour. Personality and Individual Differences 2004; 36; 1921-1932. Miles, L. (2007). Physical activity and health. Nutrition Bulletin, 32, 314-363. Ingledew, D. K., & Markland, D. (2008). The role of motives in exercise participation. Psychology and Health, 23, 807-828. Cavill, N., Kahlmeier, S., & Racioppi, F. (Eds.). (2006). Physical activity and health in Europe: Evidence for action. Copenhagen, Denmark: World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe. Retrieved January 2, 2012 from: http://www.euro.who.int Pleis, J. R., & Lethbridge-Πejku, M. (2006). Summary health statistics for U.S. adults: National health interview survey, 2005. National Centre for Health Statistics. Vital & Health Statistics, 10, 232. Vallerand, R. J. (2007). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in sport and physical activity: A review and a look at the future. In G. Tenebaum & R. C. Eklund (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology (3rd. ed., pp. 59-83). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Vlachopoulos, S . P. (2010). Measurement invariance in comparative psychological research. In A. Brouzos (Series Ed.) & P. Metallidou, P. Roussi, A. Brouzos, & A. Efklides (Vol. Eds.), Scientific annals of the Psychological Society of Northern Greece: Vol. 8. New methodological approaches in psychological research – applications (pp. 37-67). Athens: Pedio. Wilson, P. M., Mack, D. E., & Grattan, K. P. (2008). Understanding motivation for exercise: A self-determination theory perspective. Canadian Psychology, 49, 250-256. Pelletier, L. G., Fortier, M. S., Vallerand, R. J., Tuson, K. M., Briere, N. M., & Blais, M. R. (1995). Toward a new measure of intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation in sports: The sport motivation scale. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 17, 35–53. Rose, E. A., Parfitt, G., & Williams, S. (2005). Exercise causality orientations, behavioural regulations for exercise and stages of change for exercise: Exploring their relationships. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 6, 399–414. Hoyle, R. H., & Smith, G. T. (1994). Formulating clinical research hypotheses as structural equation models: A conceptual overview. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 429-440. Ingledew, D.K., Markland, D. (2006). The role of motives in exercise participation. Psychology of Exercise and Sport, 6, 111-131. Ingledew, D. K., & Sullivan, G. (2002). Effects of body mass and body image on exercise motives in adolescence. Psychology of Exercise and Sport, 3, 323–338. Presnell, K., Bearman, S. K., & Stice, E. (2004). Risk factors for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls: A prospective study. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 36, 389–401. McCabe, M. P., & Ricciardelli, L. A. (2003). A longitudinal study of body change strategies among adolescent males. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 32, 105–113. Landry, J. B., & Solomon, M. A. 2004, African American Women's Self Determination Across Stages of Change for Exercise, Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 26, 457-469. Thøgersen-Ntoumani, C. & Ntoumanis, N. (2006). The role of self-determined motivation in the understanding of exercise-related behaviours, cognitions and physical self-evaluations. Journal of Sports Sciences, 24, 393-404 Pope, H. G., Gruber, A. J., Mangweth, B., Bureau, B., deCol, C., Jouvent, R., et al. (2004). Body image perception among men in three countries. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1297–1301. Markland, D., Ingledew, D.K. 2007, The relationship between body mass and image and relative autonomy for exercise among adolescent males and females, Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 8, 836-853 Hawkins, S.A., Cockburn, M.G., Hamilton, A.S., Mack, T.M., 2004. An estimate of physical activity prevalence in a large population based cohort. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 36, 253–260. Umstattd, M.R., Hallam, J. 2007. Older adult's behaviour: roles of selected constructs of social-cognitive theory, Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 15, 206-2012 Grodesky, J.M., Kosma, M., & Solmon, M.A. 2006, Understanding older adults’ physical activity behavior: A multi-theoretical approach. Quest, 58, 310-329. Hall PA, Fong GT, Epp LJ, Elias LJ. Executive function moderates the intention-behaviour link for physical activity and dietary behavior. Psychology and Health 2008;23(3):309 –26. Bandura, A. 2004. Health promotion by social cognitive means. Health Education Behaviours ; 31(2):143. APPENDIX: EXERCISE REGULATIONS QUESTIONNAIRE (BREQ-2) Age: ___________ years Sex: male female (please circle) Why do you engage in exercise? We are interested in the reasons underlying peoples’ decisions to engage, or not engage in physical exercise. Using the scale below, please indicate to what extent each of the following items is true for you. Please note that there are no right or wrong answers and no trick questions. We simply want to know how you personally feel about exercise. Your responses will be held in confidence and only used for our research purposes. Not true Sometimes Very true for me true for me for me 1 I exercise because other people 0 1 2 3 4 say I should 2 I feel guilty when I don’t exercise 0 1 2 3 4 3 I value the benefits of exercise 0 1 2 3 4 4 I exercise because it’s fun 0 1 2 3 4 5 I don’t see why I should have to exercise 0 1 2 3 4 6 I take part in exercise because my 0 1 2 3 4 friends/family/partner say I should 7 I feel ashamed when I miss an 0 1 2 3 4 exercise session 8 It’s important to me to exercise regularly 0 1 2 3 4 9 I can’t see why I should bother exercising 0 1 2 3 4 10 I enjoy my exercise sessions 0 1 2 3 4 11 I exercise because others will not be 0 1 2 3 4 pleased with me if I don’t 12 I don’t see the point in exercising 0 1 2 3 4 13 I feel like a failure when I haven’t 0 1 2 3 4 exercised in a while 14 I think it is important to make the effort to 0 1 2 3 4 exercise regularly 15 I find exercise a pleasurable activity 0 1 2 3 4 16 I feel under pressure from my friends/family 0 1 2 3 4 to exercise 17 I get restless if I don’t exercise regularly 0 1 2 3 4 Not true Sometimes Very true for me true for me for me 18 I get pleasure and satisfaction from 0 1 2 3 4 participating in exercise 19 I think exercising is a waste of time 0 1 2 3 4 Read More