Comparing the Theoretical Positions Concerning Neuropsychology - Essay Example

? Comparing the theoretical positions outlined by the three Comparing the theoretical positions outlined by the three authors Kurt Koffka was a German psychologist who believed that sensori motor learning occurs because of a given consequence of reinforcement. Edward Tolman was an American psychologist who believed that learning occurs after a given reinforcement. He conducted his experiments on rats, and man to determine how learning takes place within an individual. Donald Hebb was a Canadian psychologist who looked at neuropsychology, and how it influenced an individual’s behavior in terms of learning. This paper presents a comparison of their theoretical positions on learning takes place within an individual. Kurt Koffka Kurt Kafka developed the Gestalt-Theory as a theory of perception (Koffka, 1922). This theory is more than a theory of perception because it goes beyond any psychological theory. This theory originated from the study of perception conducted by Kafka himself. This study and development of the theory has contributed to a better understanding of experimental works conducted. An individual’s perception can be used to explain this theory. The theory focuses on structure and organization of stimuli having a certain structure organized in a certain manner, which was based on structure organization than the specific sensory elements (Koffka, 1922). This is organization or organism responds after a reaction. When a rat was conditioned it did not respond to the absolute stimuli, but responds according to the relative surrounding presented to it (Koffka, 1922). According to Koffka (1922), early learning can be referred to as sensorimotor learning. This type of learning occurs after one experience a certain consequence. For instance, when a child toughs fire he or she will learn not to touch the fire. He also believed that learning occurs through imitation (Koffka, 1922). However, it is not important to understand how learning occurs through imitation. He further states that, ideational learning that uses language is the highest type of learning that can take place within an individual, an important point in learning is when the child learns to understand that things have names (Koffka, 1922). The Gestalt theory of perception was based on the observation that people usually experience objects that are not a part of their simple senses. This theory views human beings as an open system, and an active interaction with the surroundings. The interactions are determined by the intrinsic nature of the human being as a whole. This theory can be used to understand the concept of order and structure in psychological events (Koffka, 1922). This theory describes man’s perceptual movement to separate complete figures from their environments based on the following variables, like difference‚color‚magnitude or movement (Koffka, 1922). The conflicting point of this formulation is the mask adopted by several animals in natural environments. It also notes that objects or animals which have the same visual features like figure‚ color, size‚texture‚ or worth will be understood as fitting together or ‘grouped’ in the observer’s mind (Koffka, 1922). Recurrence of shapes or colors in a structure is attractive in the same manner rhythm is attractive in sounds of music. These forms should not look the same, but there should be difference in the repetition of objects. However, the agreement will still be visible and parallel, or the recurrence in a figure usually brings implications of agreement‚ rhythm and association (Koffka, 1922). Through the utilization of similarity in an item, meaning can be revealed to the observer. Elements or objects seem to be together in this theory when they move together. This is because they all have a common fate (Koffka, 1922). Lastly, conclusion is the fulfilling effect of identifying a pattern in a man’s brains. This pattern is presents in a manner that he can observe complete images even when some part of the information is omitted (Koffka, 1922). The conclusion occurs when components or parts in a configuration are supported in a manner that the observer observes the connection in the pattern‚ and the eye appreciates something as part of the configuration even though not presented in the image or configuration (Koffka, 1922). Edward Tolman Cognitive mapping refers to a process where people understand their surroundings, solve different challenges within the environment, and use their memory (Tolman, 1948). This theory was developed in 1940 by Edward Tolman at the University of University of California-Berkeley in the field of psychology. The theory started in the laboratory with experiments using rats. In the experiments, Tolman manipulated each rat with a network that offered food at the edge. He realized that every time the rats passed over the myriad small trails and blind paths, the rats made some mistakes. Finally, they were all capable of moving swiftly to the food with no moves (Tolman, 1948). Tolman (1948) examined the roles of reinforcement in the way the rats leant in the maze looking for food. It is through a theory that he developed the latent learning theory that describes learning as an entity, which occurs in the absence of reinforcement. According to Tolman (1948), everything behaves because it has a reason for doing so. This means there is a motivating factor forcing it to behave in that particular manner. He also noted that when rats spent a lot nights in the mazes without feeding then there was a delay in learning known as latent learning (Tolman, 1948). The rats in the experiment finally developed cognitive maps without reward and thus latent learning displays a distinction between learning and performance (Tolman, 1948). Therefore, according to Tolman (1948), behavior in learning is purposive and cognitive. A lot of emphasis should be placed on the moral aspect of behavior, and through reinforcement, expectations are achieved and realized by an individual. Tolman (1948) thought that people acquire several numbers of signals from their surroundings, and develop expectancies concerning their permanence or variable characteristics. By making use of this internal image or depiction of a physical image, they could acquire the objective by understanding where it is within complicated environmental descriptions (Tolman, 1948). He also felt that training would make someone develop a tendency to move to a positive place (Tolman, 1948). Individuals would learn where to move, and not just how to move. Learning was primary dependent to the central nervous system in this theory. This is opposed to the theory of behaviorism who proposed the concept of peripheralism in learning. In this theory, latent learning only manifests in an individual through reinforcement or rewards. This theory presents the following variable, behavior, or responses observed by the observer as the dependent variable. The individual variation and the environment were the independent variable, and the internal cognitive processes are the intervening variables (Tolman, 1948). Donald Hebb The American Revolution by Donald Hebb is a revolution about psychological thought and practice proposed by Thorndike, Skinner and Watson, Ternan and Yakes. Donald compares this revolution with that of the American political revolution. However, this is more related to the learning theory revolution form other psychologist, which is expressed in terms of behaviorism. The political reference was used to show that the author is completely detached to the old notions of behaviorism and taking a complete new turn to describe behaviorism in relation to neuropsychology. According to Hebb (1949), revolution did not occur in a vacuum it was a result of inspiration from the American, Russians, and Germany paralleled with the Russian revolution. He notes that revolution did not occur over night but it happened through different stages (Hebb, 1949). This can be seen in the first American who attempted a comprehensive theory of behavior for the first time during the age of revolution. This was parallel to the psychoanalytic revolution as inseparable to the psychology. Hebb (1949) notes that Psychoanalysis fails to indicate interests in the mechanisms of behavior in relation to learning, senses, and perception of concepts formation. Therefore, psychoanalysis is still a provisional solution to understanding the concept of behaviorism. The psychological concept was based on the systematic application of stimulus and response to all aspects of behavior. Thorndike Watson and Pavlov to describe the domains of learning in relation to behavior developed the S-R formulae. Hebb (1949) claimed that behavioral displays like the visual insights are developed slowly over long time via the connection of specific groups of cells known as the cell assemblies. With time, behaviors that are more difficult are developed out of the group of cell associations, which he referred to as phase sequences (Hebb, 1949). The phase sequences are not localized; they include some equipotentiality like the alternative ways which are taken into use in case others get destroyed. In this case, the development continues from localization to completeness (Hebb, 1949). In other cases, since refinement is prominent in initial life, development also contributes to localizations. Conclusion From the comparison, all the individuals involved are psychologists from different countries. However, Kurt Koffka was mainly concerned with learning because of reinforcement, Edward Tolman is concerned with the cognitive mapping among the rats and human beings, and Hebb looks at how learning occurs because of neuropsychology References Hebb, D. O. (1949). The Organization of Behavior: A Neuropsychological Theory. New York: Wiley and Sons. Koffka, K. (1922). Perception and introduction to the Gestalt-Theories. Psychological Bulletin, 19(6): 531-585. Tolman E. C. (1948). Cognitive maps in rats and men. Psychological Review, 55(2): 189-208. Read More