Al-Qaida Terrorism and Counterterrorism - Coursework Example

Al-Qaida Terrorism and Counterterrorism Name University Affiliation Al-Qaida Terrorism and Counterterrorism Although terrorism is not a new phenomenon, considering that it has existed in different shades for centuries, it has captured the imagination of the international community in the last decade, and especially since the Al-Qaida orchestrated September 2001 attacks in the United States, London subway bombings, and Madrid train station attacks. In response, governments, private security institutions, and organizations have spawned diverse counterterrorism measures aimed at protecting travelers, tourisms, industries, institutions, and individuals. Such threats of terrorism have also contributed to a specter of fear of unknown and massive expenditure to protect from the threats of terrorism. Such constant fear has become a reality for citizens in many countries with counterterrorism measures leading to changes in various industries such as airline industries and in many cases leading to delays, changes in planning, scheduling, and forcing travelers to take personal security measures. Al-Qaida, more that any terrorist organization is credited with the massive awareness of the threat of terrorism and this has resulted to various countermeasures that have been adopted globally. After the September 11, 2001 attacks, a declaration of war on terror made by the United States and its allies was in essence war against the Al-Qaida terrorist organization and its globally inspired movement (Sageman, 2009, p. 4). Al-Qaida ideology of Jihadism is the driving force of the organizations. The counterrosism measures have attracted wide criticism especially concerning failure to adhere to civil rights and freedoms. The term ‘terrorism’ embodies diverse meanings captured in the complexity of its definitions. Subsequently, for all forms of violence and menace, individual governments and United Nations do not have a general agreed definition of terrorism. Nonetheless, some of the security experts in international security circles argue that terrorism is now one of the most serious threats that face global security and peace (Sageman, 2009, p. 2). Al-Qaida’s ideological framework Al-Qaida is synonymous with Osama bin Laden, one of the sons to a Saudi construction magnate. Al-Qaida’s ideology is avidly captured in its historical underpinning of fatwa, which is an interpretation of Islamic law that Osama Bin Laden advanced that suggested that United States had declared war against God and his messenger and hence his 1998 call for killing of any Americans anywhere in the world s a sacred duty for every Muslim. A brief history of Al-Qaida is essential in highlighting the ideological development of the organization. Al-Qaida was started by Osama who went to Afghanistan in 1980 to fight against Soviet invasion during which time he was supplied with hundreds of millions of United States dollars from the United States and Saudi Arabia to finance the Jihad against the Soviets. After the pullout of the Soviet Union from Afghanistan in 1988, Bin Laden and his Jihadists Islamists fighters across the globe were left in dilemma on what to do next. Al-Qaida was a very different organization from what it is today. The organization was organized along corporate structures that were complete with departments that dealt with media relations, intelligence, and propaganda and arms procurement unlike its present form where there is no definite structure and where independent cells are encouraged (Sageman, 2009, p. 8). In the 1980s, together with Palestinian cleric Abdullah Yusuf, Osama was central in the global development of the militant Islamic movement. Together, they developed a scholarly, ideological and practical paramilitary infrastructure of the globalization of islamists movements, which until then, had been focused on separate national, revolutionary and liberation struggles (McCauley, 2005, p. 269). This ideological approach was based on Azzam view of a pan-islamists transnational movement that would transcend the political map of the Middle East drawn by non-Islamic colonial powers. His belief was that Afghanistan was a model for future struggles with the objective of establishing an Islamic caliphate across all Muslim lands under foreign occupation. Azzams radical Jihadist ideology was crucial in perpetuating his vision of global Islamic revolution. The Jihadist ideology pursued by the Al-Qaida network is based on certain tenets that are attributed to the belief that there is a clash of civilization. In this respect, militant Jihad is a religious duty before God and is necessary not only for the salvation of one’s soul but in defense of the Muslim nation. In this view, those who do not agree with the Al-Qaida’s visions of true Islam such as the west and their allies and Muslims nations that fail to adhere to true Islam are enemies in the clash (Kirby, 2007, p. 415). The ideology also is based on the view that violence is the only solution with peace being an illusion in attaining the objectives of true Islam. Al-Qaida also believes that the power of the west and especially for United States and its allies is founded on their economies and hence use of large-scale attacks that may result to mass casualties and impact on the economy constitute some of Al-Qaida major goals. Al-Qaida also stipulates that Muslim governments that cooperate with the west and those that are religiously unacceptable should be violently overthrown (Sageman, 2009, p. 10). Al-Qaida also pursued a Jihadi-Salafi ideology that has been used as the driving motivation for young women and men living in the west to undertake autonomous Jihad through terrorism acts against the western host nations (Kirby, 2007, p. 416). The use of the ideology was specifically critical in the inspiration of the Madrid train attack, The Dutch Hofstad group, and the 2005 London bombers among other attacks (Kirby, 2007, p. 417). The use of the ideology to inspire attacks is used through a process where young individuals are radicalized in a process that begins with pre-radicalization, self-identification, indoctrination, and Jihadization. Kirby (2007, p. 418) argues that the emergence of ‘self-starter’ cells represents a significant and distinct development after the 9/11 attacks since whereas they share an ideological affinity with the al-Qaida network, their operations are distinctively different since they lack institutionalized recruitment and training. This is evidenced by the case of the London bombers. Kirby (2007, p. 418) further argues that rather than fit in the conventional conceptions of networks, the al-Qaida network as enshrined in the emergence of self-starter cells can be deconstructed and analyzed through the prism of sociological models that help explain how such groups form. The role of the internet as an operational tool and the process of democratization of violence are some of the means that are used to spread the al-Qaida ideology to the self-starter networks. The rise of the Salafism as a social movement is described as the decentralization of al-Qaida and is aided by social dynamics with the infusion of Islamic ideology and rhetoric playing a significant role in the indoctrination of individual terrorists. In the pre-radicalization phase, individual’s life situations may appear normal before they are exposed to the Jihadi-Salafi Islam to constitute their own ideology. Such individuals as evidenced form prior attacks may come from unremarkable backgrounds and may live seemingly crime-free lives as evidenced from the 18 terror suspects in Canada. The first phase is followed by a self-identification phase where internal and external factors influence them to explore the Salafist Islam ideas with the resulting gravitation from their identity towards an identity where they adopt the ideology as their own. This phase is marked by individuals associating with likeminded persons with manifestations of struggles with identity common for the participants. at this stage, a cognitive opening of crisis acts as a catalyst that shakes the individuals certitude in previously held believes thereby opening individuals reception to alternative worldviews (Kirby, 2007, p. 419). Different types of events including economic, social, and world events that involve Muslims may trigger the religious changes. The next step is indoctrination where an individual’s beliefs progresses towards adoption of Salafist teaching and ideology and combined with belief that the conditions to support Jihadist cause exist. Existence of religious sanction is crucial to encourage and reinforce the ideologies. In the final process, Jihadization, individuals accept it as their duty to participate in Jihad and self-designate as muhajideen or holy warriors and the group may start planning terrorist attacks. The Jihadist inspiration of Al-Qaida has specifically been a very critical inspiration for the independent terrorists from self-styled Jihadists. McAuley (2005, p. 269) posits that the ideology of Osama Bin Laden rather than represent a monolithic and causeless hatred is instead a malleable and contingent construct that is designed to appeal to diverse constituents. The absolute and unambiguous statements often give an appearance of homogeneity to a mixture of ideas The Group’s Terrorist Activities Al-Qaida terror tactics include bombings and suicide attacks among other tactics. The September 9-11 attack in the United States was not only well planned but the most massive attack to date with the outcome of over 2600 deaths pointing out to the severity of the attack. The suicide plot was launched in German by four primary members and was developed by Osama bin laden in Afghanistan. The recruits who participated in the attack were not only well versed with the western world but were also fervently anti-western in their ideologies. After completion of foundational training in Kandahar in 1999, Hani Hanjour, Mohammed Atta, Marwan al Shehhi, and Ziad Jarrah entered the United States for flight training (McCauley, 2005, p. 270). The al-Qaida organization at the time had capable leaders who could evaluate, approve, and supervise the planning and direction of such a major operation (McCauley, 2005, p. 271). Such capabilities included a personnel system in place for recruitment, indoctrination, and vetting besides training, sufficient communication system to enable the direction and planning of major operation in addition to a intelligence system that would help in gathering information and form assessments of their enemies weaknesses and strengths (McCauley, 2005, p. 272). Al-Qaida also possessed the ability to move people over large distances and raise and move money when required to finance attack activities. Inside the United States, planning involved training the operatives for the attack and the students who were all in student visa were trained in Oklahoma and Florida. The training was funded from Dubai from June to September 2001 with the organization assembling pilots and additional team that would subdue the crews for the targeted flights. Saudi Arabia provided 12 of the 13 individuals who were selected for the task with the thirteen individuals from United Arab Emirates. Before the attacks, the hijackers who were specifically trained in Afghanistan for the specific operation undertook surveillance flights across the United States in types of aircrafts that they intended to hijack and even tested the security system through carrying box cutters in carry-on-baggage and in person (McCauley, 2005, p. 274). Other attacks have also been inspired by the al-Qaida ideology of global Jihad that was advanced by Osama bin laden. For instance, there were attacks in United Kingdom in the 2005 London bombers attack where radicalized young men born in the U.K or who immigrated to U.K as children were involved. The use of the ideology was also used to inspire autonomous Jihad attacks such as the Madrid train attack, and the Dutch Hofstad group. Kirby (2007, p. 418) assert that Al-Qaida rhetoric and Islamic ideology of Salafi is crucial in the indoctrination of terrorists in the form of self-starters as was evidenced in the case of the London bombers. The London bombers were an autonomous group of individuals who were able to achieve cohesion, motivation and ideological grooming with formal entry into the Jihad. This marks a departure from the traditional approach where al-Qaida would actively recruit and train fighters, towards encouraging Jihadism as a social movement through use of Islamic ideology and Salafism. The al-Qaida network also use technological advancements such as the internet as an operational tool to spread the Salafist version of Jihad by increasing their opportunities of interacting with a wider scope of individuals in different regions, which has further increased the risk of terrorism especially for the west where the demographic and sociopolitical conditions are favorable for self-starters (Kirby, 2007, p. 416). The counter terrorism measures adopted against it (eg military and / or criminal justice models of counter-terrorism) In reaction to the attacks, various counterterrorism measures that included strengthening and securing airports, legislations aimed at curtailing funding for terrorist organizations, as well as military and criminal justice models counterterrorism measures were deployed. In the National strategy for combating terrorism, the United States in 2006 advanced that to win the war against terrorism, it would be necessary to aid and foster growth of democracies worldwide as antidote to the ideology of terrorism besides prevention of attacks by terrorist networks. Other strategies include denial of weapons of mass destruction to terrorists and rogues states and their allies, denying terrorists control over any nation that may be used as launching and training base for terrorism activities, and inculcation of global institutions and structure to win in fight against terrorism (Burnett, 2005, p. 1). In October 2001, the U.S force started their incursion into Afghanistan together with a coalition of forces that included Britain and their major aim was the dislodgement of the Taliban and capture of Osama bin laden. Radical new legislation constitute some of the main counterterrorism measures adopted by various western countries including Britain, America and Australia with the threat of terrorism used as justification for the new laws. Some of the laws provide unprecedented powers to the police and intelligence agencies to detain and question individuals who are believed to have information that is related to terrorism and terrorist organizations (Wolfendale, 2006, p. 753). There are widespread suggestions by commentators that the attacks were preventable if the U.S. major airports security was able to stop the hijackers from boarding the fated flights. For instance, the intelligence was aware of threats by Osama bin Laden to use aircrafts in one way or another in terrorist activities. The FBI field office was even aware of the existence of several pilots in training but was unable to connect to the possibility of an ensuing attack. Legitimacy and effectiveness of the counter-terrorism measures The counterterrorism measures employed by various countries have enjoyed mixed success. Whereas they have been doubts in the effectiveness in reducing terrorist attacks, they have significantly helped weaken Al-Qaida networks and its capacity to launch massive attacks, although there is still wide ranging criticism over the legitimacy of some of the measures employed especially concerning legislation and judicial counterterrorism approaches. Such criticism often reflect the view that terrorism is a far much lesser threat than is often advanced in the media and in political circles and thus does not justify having to negate civil liberties in the guise of fighting terrorism through deploying counterterrorism measures. Wolfendale (2006, p. 754) argues that the threat of terrorism faced by various western nations does not justify the kinds of counterterrorism legislation that have been widely enacted in various countries including America, Britain and Australia. Wolfendale, in exploring the nature of the threats faced by terrorism argues that the threat to national security and well-being of citizens does not justify the raft of counterterrorism measures. One specific area of legislation that has raised criticism concerns the provision of unprecedented powers to police and intelligence agencies to detain individuals whom they believe possesses information on terrorism. The various civil rights including the right to due process, right to privacy and right not to be detained without trial have all been negated in counterterrorism measures (Wolfendale, 2006, p. 755). The United States has also specifically come under criticism over its use of torture against terrorist suspects in such places as Guantanamo bay (Wolfendale, 2006, p. 756). The United States has also come under criticism over its sending terrorists suspects to countries that are known to use torture. The transfer of individuals to foreign countries is referred to as extraordinary rendition, and is defined as ‘the transfer of individuals by United States and its agents to foreign states in circumstances that make it more likely that the persons will be subjected to cruel and inhuman treatment and torture. ‘ (Burnet, 2005, p. 3). Such agents as the CIA in the United States often undertake this secretly. The Amnesty International and other organizations have accused the United States and Britain governments of going against the international laws in their quest and zeal to gather information. For instance, in categorizing of the detainees from the war as enemy combatants, the United States failed to apply the rigorous standards that are outlined in the Geneva convention (Burnett, 2005, p. 8). After the war in Afghanistan and Iraq, individuals who were captured were taken for questioning and rather than being recognized as prisoners of war, the U.S regarded them as enemy combatants and some were taken to Guantanamo Bay and Abu Ghraib prison near Bagdad among other areas where they were abused and tortured. Such issues have raised concerns over legitimacy of these counterterrorism measures. Another strand of criticism concerns undermining of standard legal protections and civil liberties in reaction to the terrorist attacks. For instance, after the Madrid train bombings, the British Home secretary alleged that the massive proportion of the threat of terrorism necessitates that the norms of prosecution and punishment do not apply. The assertion was based on the view that terrorism is such a unique and grave threat that it is crucial to undermine civil liberties as the most effective way to combat terrorism. Wolfendale (2006, p. 754) however argues that the threats posed by terrorism does not justify the kinds of counterterrorism legislations that involve undermining civil rights and liberties as has been advanced by Britain and its allies such as the United States. In addition, the author argues that the objective threat of terrorism is not sufficient to justify the kind of counterterrorism legislations that have been put in place especially considering the doubt in the efficacy of the measures. The terrorism measures pose greater threat to individuals well being as well as physical security compared to the non-state terrorism and thus making Wolfendale (2006, p. 757) conclude that the counterterrorism measures ought to be feared more than terrorism. Sageman (2009, p. 2) has attempted to explain the rise of the terrorists and posits that historical data shows that terrorism is a natural outcome of group formation and discounts the personality, religious, criminal and other explanations. Instead Sageman (2009, p. 5) concludes that data indicates that majority of individuals who joined such organizations such as al-Qaida did so as expatriates and such individuals had been cut off from the ambient societies where they have their social and cultural roots, friends and families. The outcome of marginalization, alienation, underemployment, and homesickness of individuals who are gifted but who as immigrants are excluded from the highest status in society is one of the factors that have been attributed to terrorism. The counterterrorism measures have higher probability of increasing alienation of some of these groups of individuals and therefore rather than eliminate the circumstances that may foster terrorism, the measures may actually increase the probability of terrorism. From the foregoing, it is obvious that Al-Qaida is a central terrorism organization that has influenced negatively on the security situation globally. The Al-Qaida ideology is manifested in their religious interpretations of jihadism with tactics used to reach their goal including use of scare tactics, bombing and encouraging jihadism through the Salafi approach. The historic attacks against the United States in September 2011 spanned a raft of counterterrorism measures that have also come under focus with major concerns surrounding not only their effectiveness but also leading to concerns over civil rights abuse in such countries as Britain, Australia and the united States. Although the organization has been dramatically weakened, the alternative approach where they use such media as the internet to encourage independent cells without use of formal training has meant that the strategies employed may not fully address the challenges of terrorism with some evidence that based on group formation theory, the measures may heighten the risks of terrorism attacks. References Burnett, Jonny. (2005). Embedded expertise and the new terrorism. Journal for Crime, Conflict and the Media 1 (4) 1-18. Jackson, Paul. (2011). Lone wolves: myth or reality. Gerry Gable. Kirby, Aidan. (2007). The London bombers as ‘self-starters: A case study in indigenous radicalization and the emergence of autonomous cliques. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism. 30:5. 415-428. McCauley, Denis (2005). The ideology of Osama Bin laden: nation, tribe and world economy. Journal of Political Ideologies 10(3), 269-287. Sageman, Marc. (2005). The normality of global Jihad terrorism. Journal of International Security affairs. 8. 1-12. Pedro, Jose. (2008). The European extreme-right and Islam: New directions. Journal of Political Ideologies. 13.3, 321-344. Wolfendale, Jessica. (2006). Terrorism, security, and the threat of counterterrorism. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 29: 753-770. Rutledge. Taylor and Francis group. Read More