Description of Four Research Methods - Article Example

Four articles, each an exemplar of different methods of research, were summarized to show the use of these research methodologies in current academic and professional journals. Two of the methods so demonstrated are characterized as qualitative methods: specifically the case study method and the historical research methods. The remaining two are quantitative methods, the content analysis method and the longitudinal study. Each of the four methods was then defined using the exemplar articles as well as supporting documentation from other experts in the fields of social and medical science. Description and Examples of Four Research Methods An example of content analysis as a research method is demonstrated in the work of Pfau, et al. (2005), in which they review the effect of the embedding of journalists in the military units involved in the invasion and occupation of Iraq on the tone and message displayed in television news reports. Content analysis was conducted of television news reports aired on four major networks (ABC, CBS, CNN and NBC), and the results were compared based on whether the coverage for each report depended upon embedded or non-embedded journalists. Pfau, et al. (2005), indicated that embedded news sources displayed an overall tone that was more favorable toward the military in general and depicted military personnel in a more favorable light. Embedded sources tended to use greater levels of episodic frames, eliciting more positive relational cues. By contrast, unilateral or non-embedded sources tended to minimize the use of episodic framing, and tended to depict the military as a whole, as well as individuals in the military, in a less positive tone. As an aside, the study also found uniform indications that the news stories of the initial invasion and early occupation were more positively reported and employed greater episodic framing than the stories about the Iraq occupation as it drew on. Shawver (2006) defines content analysis as a procedure that studies natural communications, using a matrix of concepts to focus the study and allow for evaluation of specific processes. In general, the analysis is not concerned directly with the actual content of the message but rather the process of speech (i.e. questioning, advising, informing, etc.) and in the tone and structure of the presentation. Multiple systems can be applied to the same data over time, as well, allowing additional analysis and investigation. A striking example of a longitudinal study can be found in the work of D'Angio et al. (2002), in the 15 year follow-up of children born severely premature and treated with surfactant therapy. An initial pool of 213 infants born at ages prior to 29 weeks of gestation across a three year time span (1985-87) had shrunk to a field of 132 of which 127 were evaluated cross a three year span (1992-95), and 126 were re-evaluated in 2000. At each point, the child's physical and mental conditions were evaluated as was the amount of neurodevelopmental compromise. D'Angio, et al., indicated that 21% of the 127 evaluated at primary school age showed symptoms of at least one severe disability, while 32% were placed in special needs classrooms and 19% showed general cognitive indices below 70. By the time of the secondary school-age follow-up evaluation 41% of the children had no physical or educational impairment, whereas 19% showed at least one severe disability. 15% of the children at both evaluation times were diagnosed with cerebral palsy. D'Angio, et al., concluded that even with surfactant therapy, children born prematurely remain at high risk for neurodevelopmental compromise and significant percentages of these children will require special educational services. Of added note is the fact that the strongest predictors of adverse outcomes related not to the gestational age at birth, but rather to socioeconomic status and presence of neonatal intraventricular hemorrhage. Keppel, Saufley and Tokunaga (1992) define a longitudinal study as a form of research which consists of subjects studied over an extended period of time. The chief goal of such studies to observe the effect of an occurrence common to all members of study group over time. Examples of such studies can include the effect of prison on long-term employment statistics, the impact of drug use by pregnant mothers on the fetus and the effect of modern medical intervention on long-term debilitating conditions. An example of a case study as a research method is shown in the recent work of Anderson (2006), which examines a single patient diagnosed with type 2 diabetes and cirrhosis of the liver. The subject is 47-year-old male with type 2 (adult onset) diabetes, which was diagnosed some 17 years prior and who has a history of variable follow-up in the office accompanied by nonadherence to diet and exercise regimens. Pursuant to a series of hospital visits in April and May of 2005, the subject underwent a series of laboratory tests which confirmed the presence of stage 4 fibrosis in the liver and led to a diagnosis of non-alcoholic steatohepatitus. (NASH). Anderson (2006) noted that the etiology of NASH is unclear but pointed to several key observational signs that appear common to those diagnosed with the disorder. Obesity, insulin resistance, and failure to consistently regulate intake of both glucose and lipids have all been indicated in this case study and in other studies to be situational factors associated with NASH. With the increasing prevalence of obesity and insulin-resistant-type 2 diabetics, it is postulated that NASH and similar disorders will become increasingly common. The case study was defined in 1997 by Winston Tellis as a research method that focuses upon an individual or small group, allowing detailed analysis of a very small sample by giving special attention to completeness in observation and reconstruction of the cases under study. This methodology has waxed and waned in popularity over the years, but remains one of the most documented methodologies in social science, with the earliest identifiable forms arising in Europe. Although frequently decried because it does not allow for generalization to the population due to sample size, it is nevertheless useful in documenting progression within a relatively small subset of populations and even more useful in generalizing to theory rather than to individuals or groups. Historical research is exemplified in the work of Scott James (2006), in which the patronage systems of American politics evolved over the span of nearly a century. Materials studied include a dataset of some 49,000 presidential appointments from 1829 to 1917, along with supporting documentation, such as Senate confirmations and the like. Although James states that, to date, no systematic empirical inquiry into the operation of American patronage systems has been effected, he makes the case for two distinctive patronage regimes, separated roughly by the American Civil War. While the political patronage system is undeniably effective in bringing vast numbers of otherwise ordinary citizens into the political mainstream, scholars have also frequently vilified the system for its predilection to avoid the most pressing political issues of the day. There is a further indication that the fundamental nature of the patronage system altered; prior to the American Civil War, a regime structured on "spoils" politics (i.e. to the victor goes the spoils) existed, but during the time of Reconstruction and afterward a system based on political machine rationality began to emerge. The regime change highlights major alterations in the emergent character of party organization across the latter half of the nineteenth century and into the early decades of the twentieth, including the relative importance of political incentives and the strategic choices made by the political elite to maintain party strength. Johnson (n.d.) defines the core of historical research as the process of systematically examining the material associated with past events to determine underlying motives and reasons that are exemplified through history. The use of documents and material contemporary to the events is an integral portion of this method of analysis. References Anderson, J. (2006). Case study: a patient with type 2 diabetes and cirrhosis of the liver. Clinical Diabetes, 24(1), 43-45. D'Angio, J., Sinkin, R., Stevens, T., Landfish, N., Merzbach, J., Ryan, R., Phelps, D., Palumbo, D., Myers, G. (2002). Longitudinal, 15-year follow-up of children born at less than 29 weeks' gestation after introduction of surfactant therapy into a region: neurologic, cognitive and educational outcomes. Pediatrics, 110(6), 1094-1103. James, S. (2006). Patronage regimes and American Party Development from "The Age of Jackson" to the progressive Era. British Journal of Political Science, 36(1), 39-61. Johnson, D. Lecture 13: Historical Research. Retrieved 26 February 2006 from the World Wide Web: http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/dr_johnson/lectures/lec13. htm. Keppel, G., Saufley, W., & Tokunaga, H. 1992. Introduction to Design and Analysis: A Student's Handbook (2nd ed). New York: Worth Publishers. Pfau, M., Haigh, M., Logsdon, L., Perrine, C., Baldwin, J., Breitenfeldt, R., Cesar, j., Dearden, D., Kuntz, G., Montalvo, E., Roberts, D., & Romero, R. (2005). Embedded reporting during and occupation of Iraq: how the embedding of journalists affects television news reports. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 49(4), 468-488. Shawver, L. (2006). Local and Provisional Definitions from A to D: unusual terms used in Postmodern Therapy. Retrieved 26 February 2006, from the World Wide Web: http://www.california. com/rathbone/local2.htm Tellis, W. (1997, July). Introduction to case study [68 paragraphs]. The Qualitative Report, 3(2) [On-line serial]. Retrieved 26 February 2006 from the World Wide Web: http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR3-2/tellis1.html Read More