Domestic Violence within Blacks and Ethic Minority in the UK - Essay Example

Domestic Violence within Blacks and Ethic Minority in the UK Introduction Modern society can be seen as tending towards gender equality and protecting the rights and opportunities of both sexes. Unfortunately, however, the existence of domestic violence is rather common, despite the adoption of various legislative instruments that are designed to protect primarily those who may become a victim of domestic violence. Domestic violence can be defined as “a type of abuse that usually involves a spouse or partner, but it can also be a child, elderly relative, or other family member” (“Domestic Violence”). Domestic violence can be represented by different forms, namely physical, sexual, and psychological. Domestic violence often involves a combination of these types of violence that makes the victim's situation even more dangerous and unpredictable. Statistics shows that domestic (or partner) violence exists in many families around the world, including the UK. In the UK, the problem of domestic violence is known not only among the British indigenous, but also among the representatives of blacks and ethnic minority. The problem is that the negative impact of domestic violence on women has very serious consequences in particular for their health, while the UK legal system cannot provide full protection of women from domestic violence. Statistical Data on the Issue According to statistics, in the world, one of three women is subjected to at least one form of gender-based violence in her lifetime (Heise, Ellsberg, & Gottemoeller, 1999). In particular, “in the United States, more than 700,000 women are sexually assaulted each year, or one woman every 45 seconds” (Wyshak, 2000). Even in North America that “is seen as a place where women have equal rights and equal status” one can observe the different types of violence against women (Robinson, 2003). There is statistical data supporting the idea that the problem of domestic violence against women has become global. In particular, “according to the United Nations (UN), it has already reached epidemic levels and it keeps growing; confronting it is recommended in order to achieve millennium development goals” (Palhoni, Amaral, & Penna, 2014). The most common forms of domestic violence against women are presented by physical, sexual, and emotional at the hands of the husband or the partner. In addition, domestic violence is faced not only by young, but also by mature women. In particular, as noted by Zink, Jacobson, Regan, & Pabst (2004), often “intimate partner violence (IPV) is a problem in older women,” namely under 55. Considering the issue of domestic violence among ethnic minorities in the UK, it should be noted that “the recent British Crime Survey, which found that one in five women have experienced at least one incident of domestic threat or force since they were 16, pointed to little difference in prevalence by ethnicity” (“A Look at Domestic Violence…”). Forms of Domestic Violence against Women As noted earlier, domestic violence against women has a very negative role for women's health. In this regard, one can indicate the different types of violence against women, which can lead not only to serious health problems but even to death. One needs to point to rapes in war that are used as a weapon for the destruction of communities and as part of ethnic cleansing. Similarly, sexual violence against women in refugee camps and centers for the displaced is a very serious problem. In addition, forced sexual debut and sexual abuse of children can be found all over the world. Crosscutting research has shown that 40% of women in South Africa, 28% of women in Tanzania, and 7% of women in New Zealand reported that their first sexual experience was sexual violence (Watts, & Zimmerman, 2002). Unfortunately, sexual violence continues to be one of the most common forms of domestic violence against women. In particular, a review of research in 20 countries has showed that the prevalence of sexual violence against girls is ranging from 7% to 36% (Finkelhor, 1994). Most men-rapists knew the victim (Watts, & Zimmerman, 2002). Early marriages without the consent of the girls can also be seen as a form of violence. Early marriages are most often found in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Official data on very early marriage (with children under 15 years) are limited, but studies show that in East and West Africa, for example, marriages with seven-year girls can be often observed. Early marriages restrict access to education and other opportunities for girls. In addition, they often lead to early pregnancy and childbirth, which are very risky in terms of health. The list of the types of violence against women also includes cases where women are harmed because of traditional practices such as dowry murders, acid throwing, and murders for the sake of "family honor". Finally, an important role is played by trafficking in women and girls for forced labor and sexual exploitation. Thus, domestic violence against women has various forms. Domestic violence within blacks and ethic minority in particular in the UK is largely determined by the cultural and social factors that serve as a kind of justification for the use of violence against women and children in such a family because they “are likely to be subjected to culturally specific forms of harm, as publicity on forced marriage and female genital mutilation shows” (“A Look at Domestic Violence…”). In this regard, forced marriage is a fairly common type of domestic violence, which can combine psychological and physical types violence. The Impact of Violence on Women's Health Women who are being abused have much more problems with mental and physical health than women who are not exposed to violence, namely more injuries and a greater need for health care resources (Campbell, 2002). WHO multinational study on women's health and domestic violence found that women who were abused in Brazil, Japan, and Peru reported that their current health status was poor or very poor, compared with women who had not experienced violence (Campbell, 2002). Consequences of gender-based violence for physical health can be immediate and lasting. However, women who have been abused rarely seek medical attention due to severe injuries. In the USA, less than half of the women who were injured in the violence seek help (Campbell, 2002). Even if women seek necessary treatment, medical professionals cannot ignore the possible connection between their health problems and violence. Survivors of violence often have negative health behaviors, including alcohol and drug abuse. Chronic health problems that are often associated with violence include: chronic pain (headaches, back pain); neurological problems and symptoms, including fainting and seizures; disorders of the digestive system; and cardiovascular problems (Campbell, 2002). The negative impact of violence on women's health is also reflected in the fact that such women live in constant fear and suffer from depression, anxiety, and even post-traumatic stress disorder. The study conducted in North America showed that women subjected to violence are three times more likely to suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder than women not exposed to violence (Campbell, 2002). WHO multinational study found that women from Brazil, Japan and Peru, who were physically and sexually abused by their partners, were two times more likely to think about suicide than women who were not exposed to violence (García-Moreno et al., 2002). According to a study in Nicaragua, among children whose mothers were exposed to violence, the level of infant and child mortality may be higher (Asling–Monemi, Pena, Ellsberg, & Persson, 2003). Even if children do not become the targets of violence, they are more likely to suffer from emotional and behavioral problems and learning difficulties because often they observe domestic violence (Ellsberg et al, 2000). Subsequently, these children form the risk group of either experiencing violence themselves, or exposing others to violence (Heise et al., 1999). The Impact of Violence on Women’s Reproductive Health As it turns out, domestic violence negatively affects not only the nervous, digestive, and circulatory systems. The problem is that gender-based violence also affects the reproductive and sexual health of women. A study in the United States found that women who are abused by an intimate partner are three times more likely to suffer from gynecological problems than women who are not exposed to violence (Campbell, 2002). These problems include chronic pain in the pelvic organs, vaginal bleeding or discharge, vaginal infections, painful menstruation, sexual dysfunction, fibroids, inflammatory diseases of the pelvic organs, pain during intercourse, urinary tract infections, and infertility. Sexual violence, particularly sexual coercion, may lead to serious physical and mental injuries. Except female genital mutilation, violence can also result in transmission of sexually transmitted infections, including HIV/AIDS. Women who reveal their HIV-positive status may also be subjected to violence in response (Campbell, 2002). Early pregnancy and childbirth, often as a result of forced early marriage, can lead to a variety of health problems, including the consequences of unsafe abortion. Continuing to provide an extremely negative impact on women's health, violence restricts sexual and reproductive autonomy of women. Women who were sexually abused are more likely to be forced to use contraception secretly, because their partners often do not allow them to use contraception or refuse to use condoms in order to prevent infection (García-Moreno et al, 2002). Women who experienced male violence are much more likely to engage in risky sexual behavior, deal with an unwanted pregnancy and suffer from sexual dysfunction (Heise et al., 1999). Studies show that in the United States, Canada, Sweden, Great Britain, South Africa, and Nicaragua from 4% to 15% of all pregnant women suffer from physical violence (Campbell, 2002) Violence by an intimate partner during pregnancy may play a significant role in complications during pregnancy than other factors that go into a standard examination for pregnancy, such as high blood pressure and diabetes (Gazmararian et al., 1996). Scientists have established a link between violence during pregnancy and late referral to prenatal health care, high rates of smoking and drug/alcohol use during pregnancy, poor maternal weight during pregnancy, and depression (Heise et al., 1999). Violence against pregnant women is associated with unsafe abortion, miscarriage, stillbirth, low birth weight, and neonatal mortality. Although it is rather difficult to determine the causal link between violence and related negative phenomena, a recent meta-analysis of studies indicates a link between low birth weight and violence during pregnancy (Murphy, Schei, Myhr, & Mont, 2001). Conclusion Domestic violence in its various forms is a global problem, since statistics shows that different countries can detect the existence of various forms and types of domestic violence. The same can be said about the phenomenon of domestic violence among black and ethnic minorities in England. The peculiarity of this violence is largely determined by their cultural characteristics, which in many cases is a negative factor that contributes to the spread of domestic violence in particular in the form of forced marriage. At the same time, a particularly negative impact of domestic violence is reflected primarily on women's health. Given that there are different forms of domestic violence namely physical, sexual, and psychological one can observe the negative impact not only on the physical but also the psychological health of women. References A look at domestic violence among families from ethnic minorities. (2006). Community Care. Retrieved from http://www.communitycare.co.uk/2006/11/01/a-look-at-domestic-violence-among-families-from-ethnic-minorities/ Asling–Monemi, K., Pena, R., Ellsberg, M. C., & Persson, L. Å. (2003). Violence against women increases the risk of infant and child mortality: a case–referent study in Nicaragua. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 81 (1): 10-17. Campbell, J. (2002). Health consequences of intimate partner violence. The Lancet, 359:1331-1336. Domestic violence. (n.d.). Medline Plus. Retrieved from http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/domesticviolence.html Finkelhor, C. (1994). The international epidemiology of child sexual abuse. Child Abuse & Neglect, 18(5): 409–417. 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