Urban regeneration: How does the EU view the potential role of cities to achieve balanced and harmonious living - Essay Example

? Word count 4,697 Urban Regeneration Urban Competitiveness How does the EU view the potential role of cities to achieve balanced and harmonious living? In a study, conducted by a group of authors for the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (Crown copyright, 2004), competitiveness was treated as the strategic goal of Urban regeneration. A city’s competiveness can be measured in terms of the economic diversity of a city, its skilled workforce, connectivity, strategic capacity to implement long-term development strategies, innovation and organizational capacity, and the quality of living in the city (Crown Copyright, 2004). Competiveness is shown then, in GDP, innovation levels, educational levels, connectivity, social cohesion, quality of life, political capacity and connections with a city’s wider territories. It may concluded, therefore, that competitiveness is shown, not just in the income of firms, but also in how that income goes to residents. Very competitive cities spur both national and international investments, a thing that is both necessary for the economic growth and competitiveness, not only of the regions, but also of countries. Cities are crucial therefore, in the development of Europe’s regions (European Comunities, 2009). They play very relevant roles in increasing European Union’s global competitiveness as majority of the jobs, firms and higher institutions are resident in cities. About 70 percent of Europe’s inhabitnats live in the urban areas. Innovations, entrepreneurship, economic growth, and social cohension all take place, and are determined by the actions of cities (European Comunities, 2009). What this means, is that, strong cities bring about stronger and more competitive regions. Seeing therefore that cities are the gateway to regional growth, innovation and job creation, it is crucial then that towns and cities become or remain attractive to both residents and businesses. This perhaps, explains why the the EU has initiated cohesion policy intervention programmes, designed to harness the economic potentials of Europe’s cities. Successive presidents of EU have given extensive level of recognition to urban issues, meeting with ministers from around EU to forge a new culture of cooperation on urban affairs. In the Leipzig charter of 2007, it was recomended that an integrated urban approach be used in greater measure, and that special attention be given to deprived neighbourhood within cities. Programmes developed have culminated in a common European ‘Acquis Urbain’, the goals being to strengthen economic prosperity and employment in towns and cities, to promote equality, social inclusion and regeneration in urban areas, to protect and improve urban enviroment, so local and global sustainability is achieved, and finally to trigger local empowerment. The EU considers towns and cities the drivers of, innovation, social cohesion, job creation, education and the overall development and global competitiveness of Europe, and has made huge investment creating programmes that have evolved from the year 2000, stretching into 2013. The Role of Cities What can cities do to be more attractive and competitive? What are the limiting factors here? Considering then the crucial role cities play in the overall competitiveness of regions, it is safe to conclude that cities need to act in ways that enhance their attractiveness and competitiveness. Even though European cities are diverse and have dissimilar challenges, they are nevertheless, affected by a common trend. They all must confront the challenge of developing new models of decision making that would not only help increase their competitiveness, but also help reduce social exclusion. Such factors as the quality of labour, education and training, the cultural, residential and physical environment, the planning and fiscal regimes, the communication and transportation, which help attract investment and determine competitiveness are basically influenced, or mainly controlled by the cities. In the 2006 OECD territorial review, recommendations cities could tailor to meet their specific needs, presented as a guide, cities need to consider in their drive for competitiveness. The recommendations include: 1.) A flexible strategic vision is necessary to foster competitiveness, ensure a diversified rang of independent venture, and information and transportation link between universities, researchers, technicians and manufacturers. 2.) Livable cities with high quality infrastructure, green space and inner city residential areas and public projects can contribute to economic success, attracting foreign investors as well as highly qualified professionals and tourists 3.) Effective governance of cities depends on leadership from the national government to encourage reform, a formal government at the metro-regional level, and lower level local network that include non-governmental actors, associations and businesses which can deal with social tension and understand market realities. 4.) To balance the financial needs of cities with those of the rest of the country, cities can diversify taxes with ‘smart taxes’ such as congestion charges and the use of public-private partnership to raise money for public projects. (OECD territorial review, 2006). Similar recommendations were made in the 2009 European Communities report on promoting sustainable urban development in Europe. In the EC report, recommendations were made to the effect that cities need to; 1.) Create and maintain high quality public spaces as such space being a mix of architecture and infrastructure planning, and urban planning can attract industries, businesses, tourism and a high quality work force. 2.) Modernize infrastructure network tailored towards achieving high quality but affordable transport system, and provide improved supply network in other areas such as wastewater treatment, water supply and waste disposal. 3.) Improve energy efficiency in new and existing building, making efficient use of natural resources where possible. 4.) Formulate proactive innovation and education policies. (European Communities, 2009). Regeneration Strategies Looking at regeneration strategies, are there similarities and differences? European cities such as Barcelona, Manchester, Glasgow and Rotterdam have successfully transformed from industrial cities to post industrial service or knowledge based cities using strategic urban planning. Urban regeneration theory and practice have, also been found to be based mainly on the concept of strategic planning as an approach that integrates vision and action (Robert, Sykes, 2000). Strategic planning is based on two elements: visions and projects. Strategic vision determine long-term goal, and requires local political consensus regarding the economic definition of the city. For example, consensus needs to be reached before a city can be tagged a ‘Cultural City’, ‘University city’ or an ‘Energy City’. Old industrial cities, which need to undergo a process of re-branding, often encounter local conflict between old industrial elites and new innovators, which can perhaps, block the building of consensus on vision (Friedrich, 1993). Accord on new vision played a significantly relevant role in transforming the old industrial city of Pittsburg in the American to a service-based city (Kunzmann, 1993). Strategic projects serve as key projects initiated to help spur private sector investment. In their design, they are normally short term, and are targeted at selected urban areas with actors, method of financing, and tactics to be employed, clearly defined. Cities have been able to show from the past that strategic projects have the ability to play key roles in transforming urban areas (Kuhn, 2007). Do cities in traditional/emerging growth region do better? What is happening at the periphery? Regeneration involves the public, private and nonprofit sectors working together towards a pre-determined but single objective – to foster a competitive environment that helps improve the quality of life and encourage businesses. Regeneration projects, which have taken place in cities across Europe, over the years, have always often involved the active participation of public, private and nonprofit sectors. However, there is no single model for any European city regeneration. In some ways, the themes are often quite different as the challenges cities confront are, perhaps, unique owing to such factors as their geographical location, social inclusiveness, workforce and a number of other factors. While Kop Van Zuid needed the Erasmus Bridge, a new metro, and a new tramline to link the area and areas further to the south to the city centre in the city’s regeneration plan, Roubaix needed a teleport, shopping destinations, and improved social and private housing stock for the city’s regeneration drive. Yet, the similarity has been striking in that, the strategic aim of both regeneration plans were focused on keeping existing residents and attracting new active residents, especially young professional workforce (Falk, Cadell and King, 2008). The same is true for Rotterdam, Lille, Barcelona and a host of others. Traditional and emerging cities tend, in this regard, to perform much better than cities in the periphery. Such Emerging cities as Lille, which only in the 1990s, was suffering under severe de-industrialization, benefiting from its position at center of the new economic heartland of European union, became home to a high-speed rail station (opened in 1994) on the Paris-Brussels-Amsterdam and Cologne route, and a major commercial and business centre (Euralille). The tunnel Channel link with London also passed through Lille. In 1994, it made a serious bid to host the 2004 Olympics and became the culture capital of Europe in the same year. Other strategic projects were undertaken which all help took Lille into the league of Europe’s major city. However, such towns as Roubaix and Tourcoing have benefitted greatly from the competitiveness of Lille having formed alliances that made them Lille city-region, with the city region embarking on regeneration projects tailored towards attracting highly professional workers from the city to take up residence in the regions. This, perhaps, clearly demonstrates what happens at the periphery as the traditional and emerging cities become more competitive. Population Change What is the background of population change in European cities? Modern population growth in European cities began with the industrialization of Europe. As people moved from countryside and from other parts of Europe to industrial cities, population in cities changed. Many industrial cities began to experience explosive population change and increasing prosperity. Glaeser et al (1995) argues, that population growth is itself, the most useful indicator of urban prosperity. If the combination of real wage and quality of life people could receive in another city is higher, they will move to it (De Long and Shleifer, 1992). Cities grew in population as the economic conditions improved. As factories employed more and more workers, people moved seeking employment. However, urban population growth in the past twenty years, especially within cities in integrated Europe have been discovered to be dependent on the difference in climate between cities, considering that every other quality of life variable, reflected in the real wage, jobs, job opportunities, quality of housing stock, conserved open space and the quality of local public good are standardized. Other feature of natural environment, such as topography, scenery and major natural attraction also play significant role in population growth. It is expected that cities where coal-mining industry existed would naturally suffer a prolonged period of depopulation, resulting, not from the cessation of mining job, but also migration motivated by the environmental degradation often left behind. The Legacies of Regeneration Projects Despite worthy ambition to deliver lasting legacies from regeneration projects, the realization of ambition has proved highly elusive, critically discuss? “Despite worthy ambition to deliver lasting legacies from regeneration projects, the realization of the ambition has proved highly elusive” The prominent features of urban regeneration programmes in continental Europe have been the development of strategic and flagship regeneration projects. Cities and city-regions have sought to use such projects as an important tool of local economic development, and as means of renewing declining urban areas (Hoyles, 1998; Foley, 1991; Bianchini et at., 1992). This approach to urban regeneration is based mainly on the ideological ground of privatism (Barnekov el al., 1989). This consideration was enclosed in the argument that such innovative, high profile, large-scale project developments possess the inherent ability to attract investment in to the city by creating and promoting new urban image. The assumption pre-supposes that the land value and development activities in the surrounding areas would inevitably appreciate, thus enhancing ready economic benefit to the city area (Biachini et al., 1992; Loftman and Nevin, 1992). The goal of regeneration project in this regard therefore, is mainly to stimulate much greater and wider economic activities (Smyth, 1994). Regeneration project developments are directed towards encouraging investment by changing the perception of business decision maker, potential visitor or residents from other parts of the country or globe (Loftman and Nevin, 1995), the expectation being that, business, tourist, and new residents’ involvement in the locality would ultimately help generate employment and create wealth at city-wide or regional level. Given this consideration, urban regeneration projects development have intensified in the past two decades in continental Europe, as many urban development companies and urban local authorities have become increasingly convinced that regeneration projects are the necessary mechanism for the proper restructuring of urban areas to meet the new demand of capital (Loftman and Nevin, 1995). But have regeneration projects recorded enough successes to draw definite conclusion that they have, perhaps, accomplished much of the goals upon which they were initiated in the first place? Cottbus, a town in Germany, in 1989, the year of the fall of socialism in East Germany, reached a zenith population growth of 121,000. After the decline of the coal mining plant in the 1990s, the town began to experience deep demographic, economic and physical change. It lost 20% of its population, as young people fled the city in search for employment in other parts of the country. However, from 1991, the city began a process of transforming itself from an industrial city into a center of service, science and administration. A technical university was built, and Cottbus is home to the famous English garden. In 2001, the city authority embarked on a regeneration plan rebrand the city as, “energy city”, “science city”, or “park city”, and even though regeneration projects had been built, Cottbus still has not been transformed. It is projected to keep dropping in population until 2020, with eventual population estimated to be about 46,000. Kop van Zuid is however a different story. This town, on the south bank of River Maas, suffered severe isolation when the Rotterdam port moved. In 1889, the city authority, in collaboration with Rotterdam city embarked on a regeneration plan that saw the involvement of public, private and nonprofit participation. A string of regeneration projects was developed and the town now is transformed from an isolated declining town, into a center of retail, housing, education, and entertainment. Nevertheless, the Canary Wharf regeneration project in London did not record much success, and has no proven legacy (Loftman and Nevin, 1995). It can be concluded that the ambition to deliver lasting legacies from regeneration projects have proven to be true in some case, even though it has been elusive in many other cases. There is not enough public money Yet, it is noteworthy that the public sectors do not have enough money to tackle regeneration project alone. In Cottbus for example, private investors, who were to make massive investment developing a new shopping complex, meant to spur wider economic activities, and other private investment, were unconvinced, that the gardening exhibition organized in 1995 by the city, would translate into continued attraction for tourists. They gave it up in 2004, convinced there were no incentives for profit (Kuhn, 2007). Property led regeneration projects exposed to the instability and unpredictability of national or international property market, may not serve as a proper foundation for regenerating stable and durable local economic regeneration (Brownill, 1990; Healey et al., 1992b; Turok, 1992; Colenutt, 1993; Lloyd & Black, 1993). The Role of Climate What is meant by climate change and what are its causes? Should it be taken seriously? Who should take responsibility? Global warming has become the term used in describing the increasing tendencies of global temperature. The earth is heating up, and there are many empirical proofs from thermal analysis, solar and heliospheric researches, astronomy and astropysics, and researches in many other related fields. Right now, the arguement in the scientific world is not so much about the authenticity of global warming but the eminent causes and consequencies of it. Scientists argue that while global temperature has been rising, the sun has shown a slight cooling trend. The sun and the climate have been moving in opposite direction during the last 35years of global warming. The argument potends that the sun has indeed had a slight cooling influence in recent decades, which means we have to look somewhere else for the causes of global warming (McRight and Dunlap, 2000). The position therefore, in the academies of science is that green house emission; human industrial activities, carbon emission from soil (Jenkinson, Adam and Wild, 1991) and the impact of urban system (UN, 2007) is responsible for global warming. This position is supported by academies of science from nineteen countries and many other scientific organisations who study climate science. Should carbon emission go unchecked, it is expected, that the ultimate effect of global warming would not only be felt in the heat waves across cities in the world, it could affect global food production (Lobell, 2011). What are the likely impacts of climate change, and what can be done to mitigate them? Yet, Willian Cline (1992), argues that the ultimate damage and economic cost of global warming is far more munumental than currently recognized, owing mainly to that fact that these effect are cumulative and irreversible, and so may continue far into the first half of the next century before we begine to see the resultant consequences of it. In estimating, the actual economic cost of climate change, the British government released a 700 page report on October 30, 2006, compiled by economist Nicholas stern, chair of the Graham Research Institute on climate change and enviroment at the London School of Economics. He was also the chair of the Centre for Climate Change Economics and policy (CCCEP) at Leeds University and LSE. The report discussed the impacts of climate change on the world economy. According to the report, the economic cost of climate change would amount to 5.5% of global GDP annually, with nothing done to mitigate it, and could increase to 20% or more. Even now we have begun to see the effect of climate change in agricultural as change in climate and increase in carbon dioxide concetration is judged to be responsible for the slight change of the global cereal output. Population exposed to coastal floading have found themselves put increasingly at the risk of tsunamisas and floading as witnessed in south Asia and Katrina in the U.S. Health issues that are sensitive to climate make up large portions of global disease rate. Factors like vector-borne diseases and other infectious diseases, increased cold and heat related mortality especially in Europe and North America have begun already to plague the globe. Climate change within the eco-system across the globe is expected to increase, and cause temperature rise, that could cause the extinction of Corol reefs, artic eco-system, and biodiversity in the occeans. What can be done to adapt to climate change impacts? What roles can urbanplay? Adaptation to climate change is understood as taking direct action to reduce and manage expected negetive effects of climate change as they happen (Adger, Arnell and Topmskin, 2007). Adapting to climate change there, require collaborative effort from the national government as well as the regional, urban and local governments. It also requires the active participation of both private and nonprofit. However, current efforts are hindered by a lack of solid information about the benefits, costs, and effectiveness of various adaptation options; climate information on regional and local scales; and a lack of coordination. Adapting to the Impacts of Climate Change calls for a national adaptation strategy that provides needed technical and scientific resources, incentives to begin adaptation planning, guidance across jurisdictions, shared lessons learned, and support of scientific research to expand knowledge of impacts and adaptation (Warren, Arnell, Nicholls, Levy and Price, 2006). Climate change needs to be considered when development urban regeneration program. Possible adaptive responses are available and they range from purely technological, to behavioural, to managerial and to policy (IPCC, 2007). This measure is summed up in the concept of urban planning as an agent of adaptation. Urban planner play key role in planning, guiding and shaping the function and structure of urban system (Sanchez-Rodriguez, 2009). Plan-making is another central tool that is used at various level of urban planning globally ((Healey, 1998) as written plan provide clear directives for planning the development of an area over a set period of time consistent with the set developmental aim of the urban system. Infrastructure and design can play very important roles in adapting climate change and improving resistance to climate change (Mueller and Rynne, 2009), by developing in the infrastructure plans such design standards that makes porous surfaces, green roofing, and energy efficiency priority. The conclusion can be made then that, Urban centers in the developed world, though inadequately prepared are responding far more efficiently to the impact of climate change than urban centers in such developing economies as India, Brazil, China, Indonesia and a host of other developing nations. Urbanization Is urbanization always a good thing? What are the positive and negative impacts of rapid urban growth? One third of the world population, about 2.6 billion people now live in the world emerging-market cities. It is estimated that by 2030, the emerging-market urban dwellers will increase by another 1.3 billion. Only about 100 million people are projected to be added to urban cities in the developed world. It is believed that this massive growth will be fundamental to the competitive landscape of the global market. Consumer demand will expand, infrastructure will be required and companies, who are properly positioned to take advantage of will tap into a wider pool of profit, grow faster and use these emerging-market cities as springboard for innovation (BCG, 2010). As at 2010, emerging market-cities drove more than 60% of the global GDP growth, with projection being that it will exceed 67% by 2015 (BCG, 2010). Businesses have much to gain from investments in emerging-market cities. Reports have also shown that urban dwellers in emerging economies have more access to better income bracket, better healthcare facilities and better social infrastructure, than rural dwellers. But does this make urbanization a good thing? Majority of the world population now live in urban centers (Davis, 2006; UN, 2009). An urban system is “the constantly evolving spatial product of the flow of social, economic, infrastructural and ecological systems which grow and develop around an urban area” (Gleeson, 2008, p. 2656). A settlement system of this type is very resource intensive and makes very huge contribution to greenhouse emission, thus adding to global warming (Matthews, 2011). Realistically, over 75% of greenhouse emissions are generated from urban centers (UN, 2007). What this means is that urban systems are the main source of climate change (Gleeson, 2008). Living in urban centers demands transportation function, supply function for the provision of food, sanitation, clean water, electricity, light and heat, which all translate to a massive demand for fossil fuels, contributing immensely to climate change (Matthews, 2011). Urban systems contribute immensely to climate change and stand to suffer more from its effect as the concentration of large number of people make them readily vulnerable to vector-borne disease, heat, and cold related mortality associated with climate change. Urban systems in the developed economies have came a long way, and are better equipped for climate change adaptation than new urban centers in emerging economies. Rapid urbanization may be good for business and urban dwellers in emerging economies, but the planet suffers and urban dwellers stand to suffer ultimately from its effects. Rapid Urban growth What is meant by rapid urban growth? Urbanization is not simply an increase in urban population, it also involves, changes in the economic, social, and political structure of the city or region. Rapid urban growth therefore imply a massive influx of people into a region within a short period of time thus straining the city’s or region’s capacity to provide services such as energy, education, healthcare, transportation, sanitation and physical prosperity. Sao Paulo for example has experienced such rapid urbanization that it has within the last hundred years been transformed from a prosperous coffee producing town of 65,000 people into a manufacturing urban centre of almost half a million people (Cohen, 2004). With such rapid, population growth also came massive environmental and ecological problems. More than 50% of the Sao Paulo resident live in sub-standard houses, and not have access to clean water and sanitation service (Cohen, 2004), and even though it has experienced so much economic growth, the local economy had been unable to absorb a huge proportion of its still growing labour force, making unemployment an insurmountable challenge (Bruna, 200). Sao Paulo is not an isolated case, there hundreds of other emerging-market cities with rapid urban growth in countries around the developing world. Urban Sustainability What is meant by urban sustainability? The concept of urban sustainability became quite popular in the 1990s, but the notion of each generation’s responsibility to succeeding generation, which is at the very heart of the concept of sustainability was first conceived and reported by the Brundtland Commission (WCED, 1989), as ‘..Development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own needs’ This very definition has been re-presented in broader concept by many others who seek to extend it beyond the environmental considerations, to include such issues as social equity and justice. Charter of European cities and towns’ sustainability concludes that the main basis for sustainable development is to achieve social justice, sustainable economies, and environmental sustainability (ICLEI, 1994). Urban sustainability is the ability of city to survive indefinitely while balancing its responsibility to global sustainability on the one hand. However, cities by nature of the operation contribute hugely to global environmental problems, but people living in the cities are also confronted with environmental damage, pollution, health, social and economic problems. In this light therefore, many organization have formulated goals to make cities more sustainable. European environmental Agency is one of such organization that has put forward set goals that include: Minimize the consumption of space and natural resources Rationalizing and efficiently managing urban flows Protecting the health of urban population Ensuring equal access to resources Maintaining cultural and social diversity Other policies have included transportation, land use, regulatory, investment and many other designed to help improve urban development. Yet it can be argued that, though a number of policies have been designed and partly implemented, sustainability of cities has not readily worked as desired. However, the concept if properly evaluated can considerably cut greenhouse emissions. Compact City Concept In the light of past and current trend, are the objectives of compact city concept achievable? Sustainability is perhaps, at the heart of the very concept of compact city, the goal being that urban activities be located closer together to ensure better access to services and urban facilities through use of public transportation, walking, and cycling, with utility and infrastructure designed and built to be more energy efficient. The basic provision of the compact city is the neighbourhood, a provision that stand out in contrast to the conventional urban planning models of cities, which create room for suburbanization. Suburbanisation is itself a direct consequence of various changes in society, often reflected in increase in income, and the desire for leisure, and bigger and more isolated housing preference. Nevertheless, suburbanisation meant longer working and shopping trips, increased energy consumption, accident, and difficult transport provision (Masser el al, 1992). Compact city would in this regard, reasonably reduce working and shopping trip distance, while at the same time, enhancing the use of public transport system. In this planning model, work, school, shop, and other necessary amenities are all within short walking distance of each other, the goal being a neighbourhood that can sustain its residents, while also enhancing global sustainability. This is ideally achievable as resident would be less automobile dependent, thus reducing level of fossil carbon emission and reduced energy consumption. This assumption is perhaps, supported by conclusions that several high-density cities are associated with a high use of public transport and low fossil fuel consumption (Newman and Kenworthy, 1989). However, in the view of past and recent trend, it would be true to conclude that looking for a sustainable urban development based on compactness is based primarily on belief rather than rational ground (Welbank, 1996). 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