Fire and the Built Environment of a 7-story Hotel in Preston - Case Study Example

FIRE AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT [NAME] [INSTRUCTIONAL AFFILIATION] [DATE] Part 1 Introduction This section of the report shows various building construction methods and types of materials used, the design strategies for fire safety and the recommendations for sustainable construction. The report is about the design of a 7-story hotel in Preston that is sustainable. The construction method employed has low carbon emissions with breams that have excellent ratings. Construction methods are based on the buildings with low carbon emissions into the environment and having excellent ratings on the breams used. Higher rating breams make the building structures to be stronger and can withstand forces of nature like the earthquakes and the tremors without the buildings collapsing. Environmental aspect is a major concern in the construction industry. Zero emissions carbon particles are recommended by the building regulations. These emissions when released to the environment mixes with other substances in the atmosphere and they then react forming dangerous compounds like the acid rains. Acid rains are dangerous to animals, human population, and the buildings as it causes corrosion of the building parts. Building construction methods and materials used Green Home Building Green home building is a building method that involves the use of wood, straw, bamboo, organic materials and lightweight concrete. Earth Bag Building Earth bag buildings are sometimes called sandbag method of construction. It is a building method that involves the use of sandbags to erect structures. Cob Building Cob Building uses sand and straw that is mixed with the earth. It is a method of construction that does not result into deforestation and pollution and it dictated by the manufactured materials. Wall house Wall house is more durable, the construction is made by recycled paper, and done using cellulose based material. The wall house is cheap, well insulated, and very strong. This fact makes it a very good asset for the developing nations and the people displaced by the disasters. The four major materials that have been used over time include, Concrete The structural engineer makes the decision when selecting the concrete to be used in construction. These decisions are then followed by the engineer on site to attain good quality. The cement used has adverse effect on the skin due to its caustic nature and many precautions are needed (Allen & Iano 2004).  Aggregates Aggregate forms the larger part of the concrete. It is used as a filler material when making the concrete for building purposes. Stones and sand makes up the aggregate. The aggregates are strong and resistant to abrasions. Aggregate grading is necessary during the building process. It involves the mixing of aggregates of different sizes. Aggregate grading is achieved by running aggregates through a series of sieves of different sizes through a process called sieve analysis (Allen & Iano 2004).  Building additives Building additives are materials that are added to the mixture to increase the strength of the concrete. A major additive used is the fly ash, which is a byproduct of power plants and the coal. Another additive is the silica fume, which is a byproduct of silicon-based metals and the silicon chips (Nunnally 2007).  Wood and nails Woods and nails are the commonly used building materials. The type of wood to be used is determined by the weather condition and many precautions are needed when using wood as a building material. It must be protected from adverse weather conditions as well as from the insects like the mites. The nails are used to fasten the wood materials. The nails are in different types and each has its unique use in the building industry. Every type has a different holding power (Nunnally 2007).  Strategies of fire safety design Means of escape There should be adequate means of escape from a building in case of emergency. Occupancy is given many considerations as it may consist of children, elderly, and disables. There must be a defined travel distance. The escape must be designed in a way that it contains all the occupant capacity within the building. The occupancy capacity determines the escape width that is designed for the horizontal means. Consider the width of the stairs. It should be designed such that it allows for simultaneous evacuation from all the floors in case of fire outbreak (BSI 2008). Elements of structure Consider the structures that support each other. The supporting elements should not have less fire resistance properties that the other parts they support. The structures must have high resistances to fire. This helps the occupants in minimizing the risks during the evacuation of the premise; it minimizes the dangers to people within the building vicinity and minimizes the risks to the brigades who are involved in the operation of fire fighting (Friend & Kohn 2007).  Compartmentation and separation Structural fire barriers are recommended in buildings. They prevent the spread of fire from one compartment to another. The compartmental walls should have fire resistance of not less than one hour. The compartments should have adequate widths of 10 m to withstand the fires for a long time during the outbreaks. The linings of the compartments should also be resistance to the fire spread (Friend & Kohn 2007).  Detecting means of fire outbreak and emergency lighting Emergency lighting is recommended in all the escape routes and the installation must comply with the codes of practice as laid down on the lighting BS 5266. Automatic smoke and fire detectors must be installed in the building. These will automatically alert the people during times of emergencies. The fire alarms should conform to the requirements of the BS 5839 and the fire alarms should be situated at the central control room, which is at the main fire brigade route (Friend & Kohn 2007).  Conclusion and recommendations In order to understand the building structures in the UK, it is worth to note the building evolution. Various techniques were used in the UK known as the framework facilities. The structures were made in the form of fabricated assemblies. The walls were made of monolayer materials. The current housings are made of solid masonry using both the internal and the external technology. It is advisable to identify the alteration sensitivities before any refurbishment measure is undertaken. Carry out sufficient surveys and the cultural values before any design work is laid down. Identify the features that are important at the regional level and those that are important at international value. Include the interest of some special groups when any refurbishment is to be made. These include their knowledge and interests. The development involved the integration of capacity building and raising of awareness. There is need to suppress the illegal activities within the construction industry and to ensure that the projects are implemented well. There should be much support by the stakeholders in the construction industry. This helps to harmonize the support level. The UK has also managed to build structures that are resistance to national calamities like the earthquake and improving on the preparedness for emergency response. Various UK government bodies like the MOD and FCO have been brought to work together and achieve the targeted goals in construction sector and other industries. Part 2 Introduction Fires spread from one part of the building to another depending on the various circumstances. The spread may be accelerated by the type of wall linings, orientations of the walls and the angle of inclination of the walls. This type of fire can easily be prevented and its spread minimized by having the compartment walls as thick as possible and having linings that are resistance to the fire spread. Considering different surface geometries, there is an interaction between the two surfaces that is burning and this increases the rate at which the fire spreads (Forell 2007). The flame spreads very fast with decrease in the angle between the two surfaces. This is because heat is trapped within the corner making the material to get heated up rapidly. The formed smoke gases heat u resulting in to a small percentage of air being sucked into the plume. Considering the oxygen supply as another contributing factor to the spread of fire within a compartment. This mechanism promotes back draft. This involves a fire burning in a very much ventilation-limited state. The sudden breakage of a door or a window of the opening allows fresh oxygen to move along the floor. When this mixes with the fuel-rich hot gases, there is a sudden increase in combustion. This takes place so rapidly that a significant pressure increase may occur that causes the walls and the other windows to fail. When the walls of the compartment have materials that are easily flammable then the rate at which fires spreads from one part to another is so rapid. This may increase the level of damage and harm both to human beings and the properties resulting into serious losses. Fire safety engineering issues for UK and Brazil cases Fire safety engineering is defined as engineering and scientific principles of application that help to understand the effects that are caused by fire, the reactions during fire outbreaks and how people respond to the fire. The Woolworths Fire of 1979 in UK In the case of UK, Fire safety fundamentals have played a significant role in liberation of architects when designing the buildings. The type of occupancy for example healthcare buildings dictates the strategies and the facilities to be used. This area needs maximum attention as it contains the elderly, the weak, and the sick ling individuals. The horizontal escape widths are considered in buildings in all categories. For example, 3.3mm per person in school buildings. The maximum horizontal travel distances should comply with the figures in the table below. There should be adequate means of escape from a building in case of emergency. Occupancy is given much consideration as it may consist of children, elderly, and disables. There must be a defined travel distance. The escape must be designed in a way that it contains all the occupant capacity within the building. The occupancy capacity determines the escape width that is designed for the horizontal means. Consider the width of the stairs. It should be designed such that it allows for simultaneous evacuation from all the floors in case of fire outbreak. Table 1: Width of staircases needed Kindle fire of 1976 in Brazil In the case of Brazil, staircases have been incorporated in buildings with the vertical escape routes are designed with respect to the regulations in the BS 9999 and should not be more than 1100 mm wide and with no staircases. For any building, the minimum requires escape width is 44 inches while the width for special occupancies are larger. The illumination lighting must meet the standards set by the life safety code and the areas that require lighting include the galleries and the switchgears. Water supply is necessary in case of fire outbreak for a period not less than 2 hours. Water supply should be looped in order to have a two-way flow (BSI 2008). Structural fire barriers are recommended in buildings. They prevent the spread of fire from one compartment to another. The compartmental walls should have fire resistance of not less than one hour. The compartments should have adequate widths of 10 m to withstand the fires for a long time during the outbreaks. The linings of the compartments should also be resistance to the fire spread. Various structures have different recommended dimensions for example the following compartments have the given recommended dimensions. Single storey industrial unit- the maximum recommended height is 18 m Storey shop with sprinkler- there is no maximum recommended height The travel distance for lecture hall- the recommended travel distance is 15 m The travel distance for shop floor- the recommended travel distance is 18 m When considering the type of occupancy (Great Britain 2006). 10-200 people- only one escape route is needed 200-450 people- two escape routes required 450- 650- three escape routes required (Great Britain 2006). Type of occupancy Number of escape routes recommended 10 1 escape route 200 1 escape route 450 2 escape routes 650 2 escape routes Table 2: Occupancy and the number of escape routes Type of building structure Maximum recommended height Single storey industrial unit 18 m Storey shop with sprinkler No maximum height recommended The travel distance for lecture hall 15 m The travel distance for shop floor 18 m Table 3: Building structures and recommended heights No of people Exit width 61 850 mm 10 750 mm 500 5 mm Table 4: Number of people and escape widths Number of occupants Width of escape stair case 75 1000 mm 130 1200 mm 155 1500 mm Table 5: Number of occupants and the width of escape staircases Part 3 Introduction Halon is bromochlorideflouromethane. It is used in the fire industry as an extinguisher. It was designed specifically for class B and class C fires. The containers are available in different sizes that can easily be carried from one part to another. This part discusses the environmental impacts of the halon, why Halon replacement in fire protection industry is under the Montreal protocol Nomenclature of halon & Freon systems C2F4Br2 is Halon 2402. Halon 1211 is CF2ClBr. Environmental Impacts of Halon Halon is dangerous especially when used in an enclosed area. It causes dizziness and coordination imbalances. One needs to evacuate an area immediately after using the halon to extinguish the fire (Vallero & Letcher 2012). Before using halon and the Freon, one needs to lay down precautions as the two substances are hazardous and causes dangers to human beings and to the entire environment if handled carelessly and the nomenclature of Halon and the Freon. The part of the report also covers the relationship that exists between different temperature scales such as the Fahrenheit, Celsius and the Degrees scales. Why Halon replacement in fire protection industry is under the Montreal protocol Halon and Freon were put under close observation of the Montreal protocol due to their diverse effects in the ecosystem and human health. Halon and Freon cause chronic effect on the respiratory system of the human beings and the animals. It is advisable to have the substances kept under locked cupboards away from reach. These substances need to be stored separately to prevent reactions that may result into chemical reactions. Each container should be well labeled to avoid confusions. Considering the diverse effects of the Halon and the Freon on the ecosystem, Halon replacement was therefore a right decision due to its harmful effects on the environment. The halon causes the depletion of the ozone layer. These substances are not destroyed and continue to move slowly upwards to the ozone layer where they are broken down into bromine and the chlorine both of which are dangerous substances (Vallero & Letcher 2012). Difference and Common Issues between the Fahrenheit/Rankine and the Celsius/Kelvin Temperature Scales Temperature is the level in which a body is either cold or hot which is the thermal energy contained by the body. The instrument used to measure the temperature is the thermometer calibrated at different scales. The temperature scales used are the Celsius scale, Kelvin scale and the Fahrenheit scale. Temperature scales Has two points namely the starting point, which are the zero point and the maximum point. The reading scale moves from the minimum value to the highest value depending on temperature of the material under test. The Fahrenheit scale The scale was created between two measurements. The first measurement was to determine the zero point when the body is placed in a brine solution. The other point of scale was to identify the point of 100 degrees, which was done by placing the thermometer under the armpit. Celsius scale This was created by different scientists but it was named after its inventor. Considering various examples to illustrate the relationship that exists between these different scales. We shall use a number of examples using chosen figures as illustrated below. 100 degrees Fahrenheit to Celsius: C = (F -32) x 5/9 C= (100-32) x 5/9 C= 37.78 100 degrees Fahrenheit to Kelvin: K = (F + 459.67) x 5/9 K = (100 + 459.67) x 5/9 K = 310.93 40 degrees Celsius to Fahrenheit: F = C x 9/5 + 32 F = 40 x 9/5 + 32 F = 104 40 degrees Celsius to Kelvin: K = C + 273.15 K = 40 + 273.15 K = 313.15 150 Kelvin to Celsius: C = K – 273.15 C = 150 – 273.15 C = -123.15 150 Kelvin to Fahrenheit: F = K x 9/5 – 459.67 F = 150 x 9/5 – 459.67 F = -189.67 Degree Celsius (oC) and Degree Fahrenheit (oF) tF = 1.8 tC + 32    = 9/5 tC + 32         (1) tC = 0.56 (tF - 32)     = 5/9 (tF - 32)         (2) Where tC = temperature (oC) tF = temperature (oF) Kelvin-K 1 unit Kelvin = 1 unit oC To find Kelvin temperature, add 273 to the Celsius temperature: tK = tC + 273.16         Example – when body temperature is 37 oC . Find the temperature in Kelvin scale. tK = tC + 273.16 = (37 oC) + 273.16     = 310.16 K Degree Rankine - R tR = tF + 459.67     References Bottom of Form Allen, E., & Iano, J. 2004. Fundamentals of building construction: materials and methods. Hoboken, N.J., J. Wiley & Sons. British Standards Institution 2008. Code of practice for fire safety in the design, management and use of buildings. London, BSI. Retrieved from: http://www.lwf.co.uk/bulletin/bs9999-2008-code-of-practice-for-fire-safety-in-the-design-management-and-use-of-buildings. Forell, B. 2007. A methodology to assess species yields of compartment fires by means of an extended global equivalence ratio concept. Braunschweig, IBMB.  Friend, M. A., & Kohn, J. P. 2007. Fundamentals of occupational safety and health. Lanham, Md, Government Institutes. Great Britain 2006. Approved document B: fire safety. Volume 2. Nunnally, S. W. 2007. Construction methods and management. Upper Saddle River, N.J., Pearson Prentice Hall. Smith, M. 2008. Building construction: methods and materials for the fire service. Upper Saddle River, N.J., Pearson Prentice Hall. Vallero, D., & Letcher, T. 2012. Unraveling Environmental Disasters. Burlington, Elsevier Science. Read More