Sociology and Technology of Workplace - Theories and Models - Assignment Example

Sосiоlоgy аnd Тесhnоlоgy оf Wоrkрlасе - Тhеоriеs аnd Моdеls Name: Institution Professor Subject Date Introduction The Technological Determinist Model vs Social Shaping Model The concept of sociology and technology is abroad area that tries to identify the role technology plays in social change and lifestyle. This paper aims to explore the thoeries and models that surround the relationship between technology and society. Different models have been used to express concerns over how technology affects social change (Chandler, 2002). An example of such models is the technological determinist model and the social shaping model. Technological determinism is a reductionist theory that states that a society's technology do determine its values, social structure or history, that is, media technology shapes how we as individuals in a society think, feel, act and how the society operates in the transition from one political age to another (Mcluhan, 1962 & Balasan, 2012). The model stages two ideologies stating that the development of technology in a society follows a predictable, traceable path largely beyond cultural or political influence and that technology in turn places certain effects that are inherent rather than socially conditioned when a technology is introduced (Balasan, 2012 & Lawson, 2004, p. 02). On the other hand, social shaping model as opposed to technological determinist model, does not address the impact of technological change but looks at the link between the social and technical in the dimension that technology imposes their own politics on users of technologies and on the other side socilal patterns impose themselves in the design and use of technologies (Williams & Edge, 1996, p. 856). For example, a mobile phone is an electronic device used for voice or data communication. The current mobile phones can support can support additional services and accessories like email, packet switching to access internet, gaming, bluetooth, infrared, camera and MMS for sending and receiving videos, MP3 player, radio and GPS (Zulto, 2009). Some mobile phones so far have a touch screen. These advancement left a statistics of around 4,100 million people with mobile phones (Zulto, 2009). Examples of such modernised phones are Nokia 5110, Nokia 3310, Noika 6610i and the coming future phones known as iphones (Zulto, 2009). The Actor Network Theory (ANT) and how it approaches the Investigation of Socio-Technical systems This is a sociological theory that was developed by Bruno Latour, Michel Callon and John law (Law, 2007, ). This theory unlike others, makes reference to people, objects and organizations and collectively refers to them as actors/ actants. Through the concept of heterogeneous network, the theory states that a network conatins many dissimilar elements that comprise of both social and technical parts and are treated as inseperable by ANT (Callon, 1997). For example, whe one goes to buy a phone in asupermarket, the actor network involved includes the purchaser, cashier, cash register, money and the phone; objects such as the purchaser's clothes and any other thing that makes the purchaser to be given service. Therefore an actor network theorist approaches the investigation of socio-technical systems through such a method known as problem of selection (Latour, 1997). The main point in this theory is that any actor, whether aperson, object (cash machine and technical standards) or organization is equally important to a social network (Latour, 1997). therefore, the smooth running of an actor network depends on the societal order in that, if the phone is removed, there will be a great breakdown in the social order(Latour, 1997 & Callon, 1997). Ethnography and the Study Socio Technical Assemblages Ethnography can be defined as the study of human social phenomenon and communities through fieldwork; it a branch of anthropology that focuses on human societies. In terms of data collection, the ethnographer normally does research by participating overtly or covertly in people's dail lives for an extended period of time, watching what happens, listening to what is said, and/or asking questions through informal and formal interviews, collecting documents and artefacts in order to get light on issues that are emerging in the society (Hammersley & Atkinson, 2007, p. 03). As a way of studying technological assemblages, ethnographers are driven by the 'failure' of systems that manifestly did not meet the needs of their users. It thus uses fieldwork as an approach to the study of work where an observer engages directly with work in its own environment, with a view to understanding the 'real' processes, activities and interactions of the people involved (Rouncefield, 2011). In the real sense, ethnographic work has features like: studying people's actions and accounts on everyday contexts; gathering of information from a range of sources; having unstructured method of dat collection; focusing on a few cases or single group/setting and interpretationof meanings, functions and consequences of human actions and instituional practices to analyse data (Hemmersley & Atkinson, 2007, p. 03). For example, a histroy of a place like America may have a lot their landscape littered with failed machines such as junked cars and used refrigerator. Ethnographical study views these as machines that had considerable potential but were for any reason, actively suppressed by companies that had the license to manufacture them (Cowan, p.15). Thus they are the rusting hulks of aborted ideas; pertents that were never exploited. This actually confirms that technical things bear some political qualities because machines, structures and systems in modern material culture can be accurately judged fornthier contributions to efficiency and productivity and also positive and negative environmental effects (Winner, 1986, p. 19). The Social Constructions of Technology The concept of social construction of technology consists of four related components. First, social construction of technology has a component of interpretive flexibility, that is, technology design ic so open to anextent that it can produce different outcomes depending on the social circumstsnces of development (Klein & Kleinman, 2002, p. 29). The second components is relevant social group which views technology as aprocess in which multiple groups, each embodying a specific interpretation of artifact, negotiate over its design with different social groups seeing and constructing different objects until all groups reach a consensus on how their common artifact works (Klein & Kleinman, 2002, p. 30). The third component is closure and stabalization where a technological design can have conflicting images amonga group and this design continues until such conflicts are resolved and the artifact no longer poses aproblem to any relevant group (Klien & Kleinman, 2002, p.30). The fourth component is the wider sociocultural and political context in which the artifcts develop and the various background conditions of group interactions remain invisible. For example, the invention of the first cellular and portable phone came without the inventor noticing the shockwaves it would later send in the society and poilitics. By the 21st century, cellular phones are now being enjoyed by all categories of people, unlike before whne it was with only those who own the BMWs. IN this context, there are so many relevant socila groups like those in college, part-time and full time parents, military, the employed and travellers(relay, n.d.). All these groups can use a similar phone technology but their perception of the phone is very different. Commonly, all these groups may take the phone as a safety device in ccase of emergency; and a solution to many problems and opportunity for coordination (Riley, nd.). Collegers and travellers may percive it as a portble landline due to high transitional lifestyles; soource of entertainment. New employers may percieve it as a remote office that provides a sense of proffessional responsibility; that is a mobile phone is used to draw attention to ugent matters; others would see it as busines oriented tool. The military would at most times have thiers off; just for outgoing calls and new parents would see it as a coordination device for sharing reponsiblities and resources. Thus every group has a unique perception of the cellular phone; thus phones have not stabalised. Therefore, SCOTs provides a model in which socila groups can determine the choice and forms of technology (Relay, n.d.). The Social Construction of Technology (SCOT) vs Actor Network Theory (ANT) Model How technology affects social behavior is the central thing in these two models. All consider that social groups exist in order to repond to different technological advances in the society. While the social construction theory believes that technological advancements do atke palce until all relevant social groups agree, the actor network theory, belives that the growth of technology is linked to the social order such that if one actor is withdrwan, then the social order breaksdown. An example of a context in which one shops in the supermarket shows the actors involved. Such were identifie as the item purchased (phone), the purchase, cashier, the cashing machine, the clothes the purchaser wears and so on. ANT believes that the social network consists of people, objects and any technological change experienced. Without the phone, the actor network is broken and may not hold. On the other hand, once a phone is introduced in the society, diffeent soial groups will percieve it differently. The artefact will advance in the society to a point where all the social groups agree. The ANT answers the question of which network is formed when a technological advancement takes place while SCOTs looks at how society eventually gets constructed when anew technology is introduced. With respect to technological determinist theory, the introdcution of a new technology in communication changes the way the society thinks and behaves and this connects directly to the SCOTs in which social groups form up and have different perceptions about the artefact until they reach a consensus. When a consensus is reached, the society has agreed to adopt the change in technological age. From the social shaping perspective, technoloy shapes the people's politics about the artefact. This hsows why some will see its usefulness and others may not see. This brings an understanding why broken down cars and failed refrigerators at most times lie on the fields, showing how ideas were suppressed by the companies invloved in their manufacture. (Cowan, p.15). The ANT believes that when any of theactors is withdrwan, then the socila network is broken. Any technological artefact is socially and politically shaped and at most times bear socila and political qualities. This shows that any machine. Structure or modernised system can be accurately judged on thelevel of its efficieny and productivity and how they impact on the environment. (Winner, 1986, p. 19). Winner (1987, p. 20) argues that science and industry has provided factory system, automobile, telephone, radio, television, space program and nuclear power and all these have guaranteed democracy, freedom and social justice. Therefore, many technological advancements are closely tied to modern politics because all advancements have changed the experience of citizenship. Multiple Choice questions (part 1) Q1. (a) Technological change is an autonomous force coming from outside society to impact on it, technological change drives social change. Q2. a. Lynne White's story of how feudalism, with a social structure dominated by an aristocracy of warriors given land, was caused by the stirrup. Horsemen with their feet in stirrups could fight and stay on the horse. Q3. b. Nuclear energy because this requires a strong state to prevent nuclear material falling into the hands of terrorists Q4. b. People make decisions and act- perhaps morally and ethically, perhaps not- but people should not blame the artifacts. Q5. c. To design the shielding disc the young engineer learned he must communicate and negotiate with the people working on other components of the particle detector and with user groups. Q6. d. How social factors shape choice between socio-technical paradigms. Q7. a. Interpretive flexibility, socio-technical paradigm, relevant social group, closure. Q8. a. The Luddites were people from the cotton and wool weaving districts in England who broke into factories and smashed the new power-looms between 1811 and 1817. They took this action because the power-looms were shaped by the interests of the mill owners who wanted to use the cheap, unskilled labour of women and children in the weaving industry. The Luddites were trying to protect their livelihoods as handloom weavers and the high-end pay rates they received at a time when the cost of food was increasing rapidly. Q9. b. Law follows the translation of human and non-human actors as their various interests become routed through the TSR.2 aircraft. He continues to trace the network assemblage as actors fail to follow their scripts or play their designated roles. Q10. c. Inflatable air tires were first adopted by the racing fraternity because they were geared towards innovation in order to win races. Q11. c. They wanted to produce a rich understanding of the interactional and communicative needs and work done by staff, and of the technologies they were already using such as forms, land-line and mobile phones, medication books, post-it-notes, and photos on pin-up-boards Q12. b. Actor Network Theory (ANT) Q 13. c. Ethnography aims to quantify phenomena so that hypotheses can be tested and experimental or randomized sampling methods can be used to control for variables Q14. d. Locale foundation, civic structure, interactions to accomplish work, routines and time-based rhythms, perceptions of information. Q15. b. In cases of techno-organisational change, the value of a new technology is only partly due to the work of the system's designers. Q16. c. John Law's story of Portuguese shipping shows how the building of a successful socio-technical assemblage, or actor network, requires the translation of both human and non-human actors into the new network. He shows the translation of the Venetian galley, the trade-winds, the currents and the sailors. Q17. b. Natural gender characteristics of women and men determine their use of computers at home. Mothers, for example, are the nurturers and so they are the key workers at home doing multiple tasks to care for and support children and husbands. This means they rarely have time to sit down and learn how to use the computer or to play computer games. Q18. a. Users play significant roles in inventing socio-technical assemblages, but users have to be socially constructed Q19. c. The ethnography helped the network designers to integrate intranet information into existing communication networks in the villages Q20. a. Medical records cannot be computerized because the knowledge and skill of medical doctors is very complex. Multiple choice questions (part 2) Q1. a. Technological change is an autonomous force coming from outside society to impact on it, technological change drives social change. Q2. a. Lynne White's story of how feudalism, with a social structure dominated by an aristocracy of warriors given land, was caused by the stirrup. Horsemen with their feet in stirrups could fight and stay on the horse. Q3. b. Nuclear energy because this requires a strong state to prevent nuclear material falling into the hands of terrorists Q4. b. People make decisions and act- perhaps morally and ethically, perhaps not- but people should not blame the artifacts. Q5. d. How social factors shape choice between socio-technical paradigms. Q6. a. Interpretive flexibility, socio-technical paradigm, relevant social group, closure. Q7. a. Interpretive flexibility, socio-technical paradigm, relevant social group, closure. Q8. a. The Luddites were people from the cotton and wool weaving districts in England who broke into factories and smashed the new power-looms between 1811 and 1817. They took this action because the power-looms were shaped by the interests of the mill owners who wanted to use the cheap, unskilled labour of women and children in the weaving industry. The Luddites were trying to protect their livelihoods as handloom weavers and the high-end pay rates they received at a time when the cost of food was increasing rapidly. Q9. a. Law gives a causal explanatory account that tells us why the TSR.2 fails. He argues that there were several significant factors responsible for the failure including the pilots' lack of motivation to fly an aircraft that caused them to vomit, delays in delivery times, and technical problems of fitting components together. Q10. a. Low wheelers solved the problem of safety for the relevant social group of women and gentlemen riders, but this group faced the problem of bone­ shaking which they went on to solve with air tires. Q11. c. They wanted to produce a rich understanding of the interactional and communicative needs and work done by staff, and of the technologies they were already using such as forms, land-line and mobile phones, medication books, post-it-notes, and photos on pin-up-boards Q12. b. Actor Network Theory (ANT) Q13. c. Ethnography aims to quantify phenomena so that hypotheses can be tested and experimental or randomized sampling methods can be used to control for variables. Q14. d. Locale foundation, civic structure, interactions to accomplish work, routines and time-based rhythms, perceptions of information. Q15. b. In cases of techno-organisational change, the value of a new technology is only partly due to the work of the system's designers. Q16. c. John Law's story of Portuguese shipping shows how the building of a successful socio-technical assemblage, or actor network, requires the translation of both human and non-human actors into the new network. He shows the translation of the Venetian galley, the trade-winds, the currents and the sailors. Q17. c. If technology designers pay attention to the needs and desires of consumers, their products will diffuse rapidly through society. Q18. a. Users play significant roles in inventing socio-technical assemblages, but users have to be socially constructed. Q19. c. The ethnography helped the network designers to integrate intranet information into existing communication networks in the villages Q20. a. Medical records cannot be computerized because the knowledge and skill of medical doctors is very complex. References Zulto,(2009). Social Shaping of Technology: Presentation transcript. Web April 6, 2009 Accessed 4th December, 2012. Chandler, Daniel. (2002). Technological or Media Determinism. Web, 10/29/2002 08:50:59 Accessed 4th December, 2012. Balasan, Tinggalkan. (2012). Technological Determinism vs Social Construction of Technological. Web, 16 December, 2009 Accessed 4th December, 2012. Callon, M. (1997). ‘Actor-Network Theory - The Market Test (draft)’ Actor Network and After Workshop. Centre for Social Theory and Technology (CSTT), Keele University, UK, , 4th December, 2012. Latour, B. (1997). 'On Actor Network Theory: A few clarifications.' Accessed 4th December, 2012. Law, John. (2007). Actor Network Thoery and Material Semiotics. Centre for science Studies and Department of Sociology, UK. Hammersley, Martyn & Atkinson, Paul. (2007). Ethnography: Principles in Practice. Taylor & Francis Klein, Hans & Kleiman, Daniel. (2002). The Social Constructions of Technology. Social Construction T 2002.pdf. Sceince, Technology and Human Values Vol. 27 No. 1. Sage Publications. Riley, Patrick. (n.d.). Social construction of Technology. In 1973.doc. Rouncefield, Mark. (20110. Fieldwork, Ethnography and Ethnomethodology: Socio-technical Systems Engineering Handbook. University of St Andrews. http://archive.cs.st-andrews.ac.uk/STSE- Handbook/ Read More