Human Growth And Development - Essay Example

Insert cover letter here] Running head: Human Growth and Development Human Growth and Development [Insert Names of Author(s) here] [Insert Institution information here] Human Growth and Development Introduction This paper tends to discuss the different development theories from famous psychologists such as Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory, Eric Erickson’s Psychological Theory, Learning Theory, Social Learning Theory, and the Cognitive Theory of Development by Jean Piaget. Included in this paper are the analysis of each and every development theories and a brief summary of its facts. In addition to this, this research also includes a comparison about the said development theories from those different psychologists from the book Human Development across the Lifespan by Dacey and Travers. Psychoanalytic Theory Freudian theory starts with the Pre-oedipal stage; he said that all people were born having instincts. He defined people as; born with a natural tendency of satisfying their certain needs, and that need satisfaction is considered as sexual (John S. Dacey & Travers, 2004). This is also considered as the Pre-conscious stage wherein his first phase that underlies within is the: 1. Oral phase (0-1/2 years of age) 1. This is the stage wherein the child is associated with the drive which he/she learns to incorporate things through his/her mouth (John S. Dacey & Travers, 2004). 2. Anal phase (1/2-3 years of age) This is the phase in which a child learns the anus as an erotogenic zone. It is when the child learns to feel pleasure through defecation (John S. Dacey & Travers, 2004). 3. Phallic phase (3-6 years of age) This phase occurs when the focus is already pertaining on the genitals (John S. Dacey & Travers, 2004) The Oedipus complex or the conscious stage The boys develop a desire for an affair towards their mother (John S. Dacey & Travers, 2004). Electra complex The girls develop a desire of an affair towards their father and gets jealous with their mother (John S. Dacey & Travers, 2004). 4. Latency phase (6-12 years of age) During this phase, a certain child develops a stronger identification with his/her parent with the same gender. He/she will try to imitate his/her parent’s gestures and other characters as well as his/her part’s values. This is also the stage where they seek companion who are of their same sex (John S. Dacey & Travers, 2004). 5. Genital phase (12+ years of age) Wherein a child develops his/her interest on his/her opposite sex (John S. Dacey & Travers, 2004) Unconscious stage Ego >> this is explained as a certain aspect of a subject which came basically from the id. This is compelled out of the id’s interaction with the environment or the outer world (John S. Dacey & Travers, 2004). Id >> this is explained as the biological or unconscious factor of sexual drives so as to instincts, and even non-rational impulses (John S. Dacey & Travers, 2004). Super-ego>> this is the drive that places limits on a person’s satisfaction and pleasures. It neutralizes the reaction between id and ego towards a certain object (John S. Dacey & Travers, 2004). Psychological Theory This theory by Erickson is said to be different from Freudian theory because Erickson explained that ego can operate independently even without the id nor the super-ego and that it is a powerful factor or agent which could adapt to certain situations (Doug Davis, 1995). 1. Trust vs. Mistrust Ego is said to do its first task which is to develop trust. The equilibrium of these two factors, trust and mistrust, depends on the relationship of the child to his/her mother (Doug Davis, 1995). 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt This explains that if the child develops autonomy, he/she will have the sense of justice and won’t develop a manipulative and discriminative characteristic. If he/she develops shame and doubt, he/she could develop a sense of over self-conscious and/or even become doubtful which may lead to paranoia (Doug Davis, 1995). 3. Initiative vs. Guilt Initiative includes the factor of undertaking to autonomy which triggers a child to develop his/her sense of being active. A certain child develops guilt towards the acts made which are extreme and/or out of control (Doug Davis, 1995). 4. Industry vs. inferiority A child who develops the sense of industry becomes productive with his aims and goals. On the contrary, a child who develops inferiority becomes a shadow of those who excel or becomes a slave whom others exploit. 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion Identity is the factor that adds the sense of confidence regarding on how a certain person appear to others. While role confusion develops the sense wherein a certain person could not settle on a certain school or occupation (Doug Davis, 1995). 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation This explains that the primary drive of a certain person should be the ego and the body. On the other hand, avoidance of such experiences that uses this drive within a person arouses fear which leads to isolation (Doug Davis, 1995). 7. Generativity and Stagnation This explains the concern regarding on establishing the future or the future generation. On the contrary, not having any plan or being unconscious with such matters leads into stagnation (Doug Davis, 1995). 8. Integrity vs. Despair Integrity is explained as the gathered assurance of ego with regard to its capacity for meaning. On the other hand, despair is developed when a certain person loses self sufficiency (Doug Davis, 1995). Learning Theory Learning theory tends to explain how developmental changes happen through using operant and even classical conditioning. Contrary to the theory created by Freud and Erickson which is related to ego, the learning theory bases on a certain reinforcer or stimulus (John S. Dacey & Travers, 2004). Operant Conditioning This is explained as the Law of Effect, this is made through using a reinforcer, then a response which will repetitively occur through repeating the reinforcement act (John S. Dacey & Travers, 2004). Classical Conditioning This explains the changes happen through using a certain stimuli into a certain process or task in which a neutral stimulus turns out to be conditioned to let out a response from the object by a continuous repeated pairing with a certain unconditioned stimuli (John S. Dacey & Travers, 2004). Social Learning Theory This is also called the social cognitive theory which is said to be an evolved version of the behaviorism. The social learning theory focuses on learning through the use of observation and modeling which also includes the emphasizing of the social context of learning. Contrary to the operant conditioning model, this theory focuses on obtaining or gaining the information about the beliefs, attitudes, and also behaviors of a certain person or individual (John S. Dacey & Travers, 2004). Social learning theory is also incorporated with the process of self regulation. This explains the ability of an individual to regulate his/her own behavior through the application of a certain internalized standards (John S. Dacey & Travers, 2004). Steps in Modeling Process 1. Attention If a certain individual tends to learn, he/she should pay attention. On the other hand, if the person lacks attention to what he tends to learn, the tendency will be that the learning is going to decrease so as to the observational learning (John S. Dacey & Travers, 2004). 2. Retention A person must be able to remember the certain learning he/she have paid attention to. It is explained that this is where imagery and language restore to our mind (John S. Dacey & Travers, 2004). 3. Reproduction This is where the images and languages are being translated into actual behavior. The ability to re-enact what a certain person saw (John S. Dacey & Travers, 2004). 4. Motivation Doing or re-enacting the behavior with a certain motivation for doing so (John S. Dacey & Travers, 2004). Motives: * Past reinforcement >> it is said to be the traditional behaviorism (John S. Dacey & Travers, 2004) * Promised reinforcements >> the possible incentives that an individual can imagine (John S. Dacey & Travers, 2004) * Vicarious reinforcement >> remembering the model which is being reinforced (John S. Dacey & Travers, 2004) Self Regulation Process: Self observation we observe our own behavior and place limit (John S. Dacey & Travers, 2004) Judgment we tend to make a comparison between what we see based on our standard (John S. Dacey & Travers, 2004) Self response once the judgment is made, a person reward him/her self if he/she did good based on the standards. On the contrary, a person punishes him/her self if he/she performed poorly. This serves as a self response (John S. Dacey & Travers, 2004). Cognitive Theory of Development This theory by Piaget is focused on the development of an individual’s learning process since birth. He tends to explain how a certain person learns to interact with the world; this theory mainly explains the steps wherein a child’s intellectual ability develops. 1. Sensory Motor stage This development occurs from an infant’s birth till the age of two. During this stage, a certain infant’s ability to interact with the world is said to be focused only to the infant’s sensory perceptions so as to motor activities. The child’s behavior is said to be limited, they are able to do only simple motor responses such as looking, listening, and even grasping (Wagner, 2007). Sub stages: Reflexes (0 -1 month)  Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months)Secondary Circular Reactions (4–8 months) coordination of reactions (8-12 months) Tertiary circular reactions (12-18 months) Early representational thought (18-24 moths) (Wagner, 2007) 2. Preoperational stage In this stage, the child develops his/her knowledge of language. Hence children on this stage of development could not yet understand complicated logics. They could not yet comprehend the view of other people around them (Wagner, 2007). Egocentrism children do not take the view of others; they rather take matters according to their own perception (Wagner, 2007). Conservation  children could not understand the importance of conservation till the age of five (Wagner, 2007). 3. Concrete operational stage During this stage, children becomes better in comprehending concrete mental operations such as logics, hence, they still experience difficulty on abstract or those matters where constructing a hypothesis is included (Wagner, 2007). Reversibility  this is when they learn how to be aware on reversing certain actions (Wagner, 2007). 4. Formal operational stage During this period, the children completely learn about concrete knowledge. They develop their skills regarding logic, deductive reasoning, and even organized planning (Wagner, 2007). Logic  this includes deductive reasoning and even hypothetical situations which requires a child to use his/her knowledge on science so as to mathematics (Wagner, 2007). Abstract thought  children develop his/her thought on giving possible results or outcome to a certain situation. This is what’s important during a long time of planning (Wagner, 2007). Problem solving  children develop their ability to solve a certain problem in a systematic way. They are said to be logical thinkers and are organized when it comes to approaching problems (Wagner, 2007). Discussion The difference between these psychological developments is that the other theories base their development through different focuses such as physical satisfaction, mental development, character and/or personality development, and the development wherein a certain child learns how to interact with the world as he/she matures. On the other hand, all of these theories are related to each other. They are connected to one another and these said developments occur step by step on a child from birth till adulthood. References Read More

Super-ego>> this is the drive that places limits on a person’s satisfaction and pleasures. It neutralizes the reaction between id and ego towards a certain object (John S. Dacey & Travers, 2004). Psychological Theory This theory by Erickson is said to be different from Freudian theory because Erickson explained that ego can operate independently even without the id nor the super-ego and that it is a powerful factor or agent which could adapt to certain situations (Doug Davis, 1995). 1. Trust vs.

Mistrust Ego is said to do its first task which is to develop trust. The equilibrium of these two factors, trust and mistrust, depends on the relationship of the child to his/her mother (Doug Davis, 1995). 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt This explains that if the child develops autonomy, he/she will have the sense of justice and won’t develop a manipulative and discriminative characteristic. If he/she develops shame and doubt, he/she could develop a sense of over self-conscious and/or even become doubtful which may lead to paranoia (Doug Davis, 1995). 3. Initiative vs.

Guilt Initiative includes the factor of undertaking to autonomy which triggers a child to develop his/her sense of being active. A certain child develops guilt towards the acts made which are extreme and/or out of control (Doug Davis, 1995). 4. Industry vs. inferiority A child who develops the sense of industry becomes productive with his aims and goals. On the contrary, a child who develops inferiority becomes a shadow of those who excel or becomes a slave whom others exploit. 5. Identity vs.

Role Confusion Identity is the factor that adds the sense of confidence regarding on how a certain person appear to others. While role confusion develops the sense wherein a certain person could not settle on a certain school or occupation (Doug Davis, 1995). 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation This explains that the primary drive of a certain person should be the ego and the body. On the other hand, avoidance of such experiences that uses this drive within a person arouses fear which leads to isolation (Doug Davis, 1995). 7. Generativity and Stagnation This explains the concern regarding on establishing the future or the future generation.

On the contrary, not having any plan or being unconscious with such matters leads into stagnation (Doug Davis, 1995). 8. Integrity vs. Despair Integrity is explained as the gathered assurance of ego with regard to its capacity for meaning. On the other hand, despair is developed when a certain person loses self sufficiency (Doug Davis, 1995). Learning Theory Learning theory tends to explain how developmental changes happen through using operant and even classical conditioning. Contrary to the theory created by Freud and Erickson which is related to ego, the learning theory bases on a certain reinforcer or stimulus (John S.

Dacey & Travers, 2004). Operant Conditioning This is explained as the Law of Effect, this is made through using a reinforcer, then a response which will repetitively occur through repeating the reinforcement act (John S. Dacey & Travers, 2004). Classical Conditioning This explains the changes happen through using a certain stimuli into a certain process or task in which a neutral stimulus turns out to be conditioned to let out a response from the object by a continuous repeated pairing with a certain unconditioned stimuli (John S.

Dacey & Travers, 2004). Social Learning Theory This is also called the social cognitive theory which is said to be an evolved version of the behaviorism. The social learning theory focuses on learning through the use of observation and modeling which also includes the emphasizing of the social context of learning. Contrary to the operant conditioning model, this theory focuses on obtaining or gaining the information about the beliefs, attitudes, and also behaviors of a certain person or individual (John S.

Dacey & Travers, 2004). Social learning theory is also incorporated with the process of self regulation.

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