The History of Cognitive Psychology - Essay Example

Cognitive Psychology Introduction Cognitive psychology is the scientific study of human cognition. On the other hand, human cognition is the umbrella name for all our mental abilities namely perception, learning, remembering, thinking, reasoning and understanding. The name cognition is derived from the Latin word “cognosere” which means “to know” in English. In essence, cognitive psychology evaluates how mankind acquires and applies the knowledge and/or information in their day to day activities (Quillan, 2008). Cognitive psychology is closely affiliated to the interdisciplinary cognitive science and also influenced by artificial intelligence, computer science, anthropology, biology, physics and neuroscience. The art and science of linguistics is also linked with cognitive psychology. The history of cognitive psychology Although documented and published works about cognitive psychology can be traced back to Aristotle’s “de Memoria”, the intellectual and academic approaches to human cognition began with cognitive approaches to psychological problems at the end of 1800s and the early 20th century. The works of Wundt, Cattell and William James can be said to the pioneers to the modern day cognitive psychology. In its present form, it incorporates fundamental sets of new technologies in psychological science. In the early 1990s to a period extending to around 1950s, cognitive psychology was threatened by the rise of behaviorism. This is the study of laws connecting observable behavior to observable stimulus condition without recourse to internal mental processes (Malone, 2009). However, this last statement put questions to the behaviorism paradigm as it described cognitive psychology more. As such, the inability to comprehend the internal mental processes cannot be used to create a link between memory and performance. It has also not sufficiently accounted for complex learning among individuals (Green, 2003). As a result, the cognitive revolution started in the mid-20th century as researchers based in various fields started developing theories of mind based on complex representations and computational procedures. Ulric (Dick) Neisser will forever be remembered as the “father of cognitive” psychology. Through the publication of Cognitive Psychology (1967), Neisser brought together research on perception, pattern recognition, and attention, problem solving and remembering. It is on these premises that various studies on cognitive studies have been founded in the last decade. One such study is the influence of Video games on Social, Cognitive and Affective Information Processing by Robert West and Kira Bailey. The draft was published in Handbook of Social Neuroscience, Jean Decety & John Cacioppo, Oxford University Press, 2009. While drawing reference to other published materials, the paper will rely heavily on the aforementioned source. A recent sample of U.S teens found that close to 99% of boys and 94% of girls played video games (Lenhart, Macgill, Evans & Vitak, 2008). In addition to the entertainment value of video games, evidence drawn from various studies show that video games can produce effects related to the development of health-related knowledge and behaviors (Baranowski, Thompson, 2008; Anderson, & Swing, 2009). One will agree to the fact that exposure to specific kinds of computer games might lead to multiple effects for example increases in aggression (Anderson & Bushman, 2001) and improvements in visuospatial attention (Green & Bavalier, 2003). Indeed there is growing evidence that various games have effects on social and antisocial behaviors, cognitive styles and affect processing. From a cognitive science point of view, evidence from a number of studies shows that some types of games lead to enhanced visuospatial attention. Two studies using the Atari video game pointed out that this game was instrumental when training pilots drawn from military personnel. According to this study, there are positive effects to video game experiences in tasks involving and examining visual enumeration, multiple tracking of objects, useful field of view, attention as well as the spatial resolution off vision (Gopher, 1994). Through various studies, Green and Bavalier have looked into the locus of the video game effect on the apprehension span that reflect the number of stimuli which can be drawn from short term exposure to visual displays. Some studies show that experience with the name type of games are beneficial to visuospatial attention and are likely to disrupt executive functions. On the other hand, video game experiences have been linked to attention deficits that relate to impulsivity and hyperactivity. Gentile (2009) observed that adolescents who did more video games were more likely to be diagnosed with ADD or ADHD as compared to those who did not. Another aspect was the relationship between video game experience and cognitive control in the Stroop task (Bartholow, 2005). A study conducted using fMRI discovered that VGPs failed to recruit lateral prefrontal cortex with Stroop task based on incongruent trials. This therefore suggests that an association between the disruption in the ability to engage the cognitive control network and video game experience exists. (Mathews et al, 2005). Critical examination of the neural basis of affective information revealed modulation of the ERPs. The question of the influence of video game experience on the behavioral and related brain potential (ERPs) has always stood out. Thus, this publication sought to discover the influence of video gaming on the proactive and reactive cognitive control. With proactive control, a future oriented form of control seeks to optimize task preparation. On the other hand, reactive control represents a just-in-time form of control which seeks to resolve conflict within a trial (Barlett, 2008). As such, there exists a suggestion that video gaming has selective effect on proactive cognitive control processes that will maintain optimal goal-directed information processing. For these suggestions to be profound there must be additional research using experimental and longitudinal designs that will seek to address the causal nature of the video gaming effect on cognitive control. According to this publication, it is evident to cognitive psychologists that violent video games instigate and accelerate aggression. However, it is not clear about how VGV affects the processing of negatively and positively skewed stimuli. There seems to be different effects drawn from VGV exposure. Early posterior negativity or EPN can be attributed to pictures that are “high in evolutionary significance”. The analysis was drawn from erotic and mutilation scenes. Based on these findings, it is seen that increased sensitivity to threatening faces associated with VGV results from enhanced processing of facial features than those occurring shortly after exposure to the stimulus (Barkley, 1997). Also, cognitive science now views the brain as a processor which comprises of many modules that are designed for various purposes. There are however three points to note here. One is that contrary to popular belief, the brain does not just take information from the senses and process it. Also, effects of desensitization emerge during a stage of processing information which is later reflected by the EPN (Baranowski, 2008). P3 was also thought to emerge from engagements of neural processes associated with the allocation of attentional or mental resources during motivated decision making involving dopaminergic modulation of the locus coeruleus-norepinephrine system. Therefore, there are thoughts that there is an existing association between VGV and the enhancement off relatively early processing of threatening stimuli supported by visual association areas coupled with an evident and significant reduction in activation of high cortical areas that are linked to decision making. One method of assessing effects of video games is by measuring physiological arousal. Research shows that video games can lead to arousal in blood pressure, skin conductance and heart rate. The link between this and cognitive psychology is that these symptoms are also observed in exposure of individuals to other parameters (Ballard, 1996). It is therefore important to first understand the causative agents before getting down to recommending curative measures for the victims. What is more important to note is that those people who play violent games have a higher probability of having blood pressure and being more aggressive? Another perspective is the alarming observation drawn from the relationship between video game experience and ADHD. When asked, parents of children with ADHD confirmed to the young ones engaging in extensive video gaming (Anderson, 2009b). As seen, 8- 18 year olds who have pathological video game habits were seen to have a higher probability off having ADD (attention deficiency disorder) and ADHD as compared to their other counterparts. Therefore, this publication helps parents, teachers and tutors to understand thee interconnection between video gaming and difficulty in paying attention in school. Subsequently, they also understand some of the reasons behind deteriorating grades (Gentile, 2007). As described, exposure to violent video games can be linked to disruption experienced in recruiting neural structures which reinforce proactive cognitive control. References Anderson, C. A & Bushman, B. J. Human aggression. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 27-51. Anderson, C. A., Gentile, D.A. (2007) violent video game effects on Children and Adolescents: Theory, Research and Public policy. Oxford University Press, New York Bailey, K., West , R., (in press). A negative association between video game experience and proactive cognitive control. Psychophysiology. Bailey, K & Anderson, C. A(2009b). The influence of video game violence on the processing of positive, negative and violent images. Unpublished data. Baranowski, T., Buday, R (2008). Playing for real: Video games and stories for health-related behavior change. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 34, 74-82. Barkley, R. A (1997). ADHD and the nature of self-control. Guildford Press, New York. Barlett, C. P., Anderson, C. A., (2009). Video game effects confirmed, suspected and speculative: A review of the evidence. Simulation and gaming, 40, 377-403. Bartholow, B. D., & Anderson, C. A (2002). Effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior: Potential sex differences. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38,283- 290. Bartholow, B. D., & Sestir, M. A. (2006). Chronic violent video game exposure and desensitization to violence: Behavioral and event related brain potential data. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 532-539. Gentile, D. A (2008). Video games as exemplary teachers: A conceptual analysis. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37, 127-141. Gentile, D. A. (2009). Pathological video game use among youth 8-18: A national study. Psychological Science, 20, 549-602. Green, C. S., (2003). Action video games modify visual selective attention, Nature 423, 534-537. Gopher, D. (1994). Transfer of skill from a computer game trainer to flight. Human factors, 36, 387-405. Read More