The Character and Prerequisites of Conditioning - Essay Example

Psychology In psychological terms, conditioning is a behavioral process which becomes more regular or predictable in a particular atmosphere after reinforcement in the form of reward or stimulus for a preferred response (Baechle & Earle, 2008). It was first studied in the early 20th century by English, Russian, and American physiologists (Lavond & Steinmetz, 2003). Psychologists came in later to research on the character and prerequisites of conditioning. Several theories were developed collectively known as the stimulus-response or (S-R) theories. These postulated that through learning human behavior is developed. The American psychologist, Edward L. Thorndike, coined the theory of Law of Effect that postulated that behavioral responses(R) that gave pleasing results could form precedents and under the same stimulus(S), reoccur (Davey & Cullen, 1988). Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are key concepts in behavioral psychology. These are different in their processes but end up with similar same results, learning. The Russian physiologist; Ivan Pavlov coined the classical conditioning, while, an American psychologist; B. F. Skinner postulated the operant conditioning (Davey & Cullen, 1988). Classical conditioning will consist of placing a neutral stimulus ahead of a reflex and centers on spontaneous, automatic behaviors (Lavond & Steinmetz, 2003). On the other hand, in operant conditioning reinforcement or retribution is applied after a behavior aimed at firming up or abating voluntary behaviors. Operational differences occur too. In operant conditioning, a consequence is as a result of a voluntary behavior, while, in classical conditioning, a stimulus yields a spontaneous response. Operant conditioning is an active process requiring the learner to participate and respond to earn a reward or punishment. On the contrary, classical conditioning is a passive activity hence the involuntary responses. A learner in operant conditioning will usually earn rewards with a counterpart in classical conditioning getting no rewards (Darity, 2008). Though different in operation, both can be successfully be used for numerous purposes in the daily activities that require learning (Baechle & Earle, 2008). Regardless of the foregoing differences, neither of the two conditionings outshines the other since each utilizes a different form of response. While classical conditioning utilizes the involuntary body responses, the operant conditioning makes use of the voluntary responses. These responses coexist in all human beings and animals (Darity, 2008). Classical conditioning can be used in animal training. In his research, Pavlov used a dog through experimenting on the digestion of dogs. He found that dogs would salivate when it reached the time for feeding. He termed it as “psychic secretion.” Further research found that entry of his laboratory assistant triggered dog’s salivation. Salivation is a spontaneous behavior that was learnt over time by appearance of the technician who used to present the food. The dogs had learned that the appearance of the assistant was paired with food, the basis of salivation (Renton, 1995). In another experiment, Pavlov used to ring a bell just before feeding the dogs. The intensity of the response was measured by the amount of saliva drooled. Initially, the ringing of the bell had no effects on salivation, but the continued association of ringing the bell just before feeding made the dogs gradually begin to salivate on hearing the sound of the bell. Since this response was involuntary, the ringing of the bell was finally taken as the equivalent of offering of food. Food is an unconditional or primary stimulus which requires no training in order to produce a response. On the other hand, a conditioned or secondary response such as the appearance of the assistant and ringing of the bell needs learning in the association of an unconditional stimulus (Renton, 1995). John B. Watson demonstrated classical conditioning of phobias with a small boy, Little Albert. Initially, the child could show no phobia to a white rat. The rat was then repeatedly presented together with loud sounds that were terrifying. This conditioned the boy to cry whenever a white rat and other uncertain white objects. The primary stimulus was the white rat that produced a neutral stimulus. The scary sound served as the secondary stimulus whilst the phobia created by this sound was the secondary stimulus. Continual coupling the rat with the sounds, gradually turned the rat to be conditioned stimulus that consequently yielded the conditioned response of phobia. After the phobia response was habituated in the boy by coupling the white rat with the scary sound, the boy could be frightened by the white rat in the absence of the scary sounds (Blanchard, 2008). Nail biting or onychophagy can be treated through various operant conditioning techniques. These may include habit reversals, self-monitoring, mild aversion and medication. Operant conditioning entails punishments or reinforcements towards particular responses. Mild aversion is achieved through use of physically observable deterrents e.g. coating the nails with a bitter tasting coat or wearing gloves. Pinching herself or snapping a rubber band over the wrist can also be used as a way of punishment. Habit reversal aims at making the individual aware of their behavior and in so doing provide a palpably competing reaction to hamper it. When the desire to bite occurs, one should perform a physical action e.g. rubbing the fists together. In self-monitoring, the nail biter should keep a record of all occasions to create awareness of the anomaly and consequently create the self-control (Davey & Cullen, 1988). For the lazy client who wishes to make a routine thirty minutes exercise at least five times a week and for the next six months, a reinforcement is essential in his endeavor. The actions should lead to an increase in the exercise behavior. The trainee should set rewards for the achievements he makes in the exercise. He should set weekly goals that on achieving will grant him rewards. For example, for each achievement over the week, he can reward himself by hanging out overnight with his friends. Punishments should also apply for failure of achieving the goal. He can punish himself for laziness by avoiding his choice wine. This punishment together with the reward will motivate him to achieve his goal. The desire to get the reward and the fear of the punishment will both produce the desirable behavior (Davey & Cullen, 1988). Operant conditioning is applied in many areas of our daily lives (Davey & Cullen, 1988). Through operant conditioning, parents and teachers can either reinforce or punish children for their appropriate and inappropriate behaviors respectively. Academic performance is reinforced through offering rewards or privileges to those who perform appropriately. A good behavior can be reinforced with rewards. The rewards will entice the person to behave properly as expected. Punishments are also used to instil good behavior or performance in humans and animals. Yelling at a dog after a regular inappropriate behavior will gradually teach the dog to stop the behavior so as to avoid the scolding. It is through the knowledge of the application of either reward or punishment that most human beings and animals behave in various ways. Professionals use operant conditioning to treat drug addictions, marital problems, eating disorders, impulsive spending, stuttering, and mental illnesses. These applications are all based on the principle of reinforcement and punishment. A person will love to behave in a manner that will earn them a reward and avoid that which will warrant them a punishment. Classical conditioning is also another invaluable component of behavior learning in our lives. Spontaneous responses are learnt through the coupling of a neutral primary response with a conditioned stimulus (Lavond, &Steinmetz 2008). This principle has been used to instil fear after sight of animals or objects that previously caused no fear. A person who does not fear snakes can be conditioned with the phobia for snakes by coupling the sight of a snake with snake bites. This will help the trainee to avoid snakes that carry the potential of snake poisoning (Darity, 2008). In sheep farming, coyotes were subjected to a sickening component that was coupled with sheep carcasses. Through this exposure, the coyotes were made to learn that sheep meat sickens hence avoiding killing sheep. This is termed as biological preparedness (Lavond, &Steinmetz 2008). A person will avoid nail biting after a regular application of a bitter substance to the nails. Classical conditioning can be applied to overcome anxiety by coupling the situation that provokes anxiety with pleasant surroundings (Blanchard, 2008). The pleasant surroundings will take over the anxiety and the person will progressively be able to cope with the situation even in the absence of the pleasant surroundings. Every behavior is learned by association involving both forms of conditioning. Most learning is achieved through an intertwined interaction of both conditionings. This learning allows humans to survive, acclimatize, and traverse a continuously changing environment. It is also through this learning that human beings are able to handle and tame animals (Darity, 2008). References Baechle, T. R., & Earle, R. W. (2008). Essentials of strength training and conditioning (3rd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Blanchard, R. J. (2008). Handbook of anxiety and fear. Amsterdam: Academic Press. Darity, W. A. (2008). International encyclopedia of the social sciences (2nd ed.). Detroit, Mich.: Macmillan Reference USA. Davey, G., & Cullen, C. (1988). Human operant conditioning and behavior modification. Chichester: Wiley. Lavond, D. G., & Steinmetz, J. E. (2003). Handbook of classical conditioning. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Learning in dogs: the principles of canine behavior and learning: implications for training. (1995). Renton, WA: Delta Society. Read More