A Systematic Understanding of Behavior - Essay Example

Psychology is based on a knowledge acquired by virtue of detailed study of behaviour. Systematic understanding of behaviours could be done by two debatable methods namely idiographic and nomothetic approaches. Nomos means laws in ancient Greek and Idios means ‘private’ or ‘personal’ in ancient Greek (Eysenck, 1994, p. 72). Nomothetic methods are generalized; while idiographic methods are individualized. Each method has certain advantages and disadvantages which give rise to controversy for investigating particular behaviour. Nomothetic approaches are conceptualised on understanding of large group of people by correlating them with generalized models and general laws of behaviour that apply to everyone. Nomothetic approaches emphasis that human behavior is a complex mixture of variety of universal laws, and therefore large scale investigation is best suited for them (Eysenck, 1994, p. 72). Idiographic methods are applied to study unique human behavior to get accurate and in-depth understanding of the individual. These personalised methods are derived from cultural sciences which thoroughly investigate specific situations relating to unique characteristics of the individual (Smith, 1995). Nomothetic methods are constructing theories for identical human behaviour in general population and ignores individual differences. This scientific study investigates few variables and reflects general human conduct making each person identical reducing their complexity. For example the academic performance of the group of students might be compared on the basis of variable like ‘organised-disorganised’. Nomothetic research involves the collection of information from large group people to categorise them under the same principle of behaviour. Then these norms of conduct derived from quantitative experimentation technique are compared to remaining population. The individual is quantified using other nomothetic methods include Surveys, Observations and Content analysis, correlation techniques etc. The person is given a score upon a dimension, or statistical number might be assigned which is called ‘averaging’ or ‘mean. Factor-analytic theories of intelligence are statistical methods focuses on variability of factors as compared to known directly observed variables. Tests reflect large number of scores (surface scores) which are analysed statically for underlying basic factors and able to measure surface behaviour ((Roeckelein, 1998, p. 90). Spearman’s Two-factor theory (1904 - 1927) is a statistical method which consists of two parts for any measurable variation of intellectual act. In 1904, he published that all the parts are positively correlated, one part is constant for the individual which is general intellectual mental ability (g) and other variable part is specific to the act (s). (Reynolds & Fletcher-Janzen, 2001, p.434). Burt in 1949 described a five-level hierarchy with g at the apex, followed by relation, association, perception and sensation. He also published a book ’Factors of the mind’. Vernon’s hierarchical model also has g at the apex followed by two broad major factors verbal educational and spatial mechanical. These are subdivided into minor factors to increase specificity (Jensen & Nyborg, 2003, p. 263). Thurstone’s (1938) flat model excludes ‘g’ factor and states seven independent primary factors like verbal comprehension, word fluency, numerical fluency, spatial visualisation, associative memory, perceptual speed and reasoning. Guilfords (1959) structure-of-intellect model is classified according to intellectual operation, content areas and products to give 180 functions (Porter & Bennett, 2005, p. 32-33). Eysenck (1953, 1965) and Cattell (1965) are the best-known factor-analytic personality theorists who approached scientifically to the differences in personality. Personalities are attributed to neurophysiological mechanisms and are governed by biosocial factors (Roeckelein, 1998, p. 178). Cattell (1965) defined theory which could predict the person’s behaviour in a particular situation and adjustment to the environmental stimuli. He proposed that the conduct is directed by complex but differentiated structures of traits (Roeckelein, 1998, p. 90, 91). The nomothetic approach is used in behaviourism, social psychology, psychological theories etc. Animal (rats, cats and pigeons) experiments are conducted to study behaviour and to formulate laws of learning (e.g. B.F. Skinner). Milgram used nomothetic tool to arrive at the conclusions in social psychology. Intelligence theory of IQ in psychology is founded on nomothetic criteria. Classification manuals like the DSM-IV also able to divide the patients according to their diseases with the help of this scientific approach. Idiographic tools emphasises on unique personality structures having vital traits like cardinal traits which differentiate between the people. The study of people as unique individuals could be identified as individual norms. Idiographic approaches are studied in detail by Gordon Allport (1937, 1961) as Trait theory, Maslow’s (1954, 1968) humanistic personality theories, Rogers’s (1951, 1961) humanistic personality theories, and Kelly’s (1955) personal construct theory evaluating many of the basic principles and assumptions. The concepts of personality must be individualised, not generalised, as are the concepts of natural science. General laws aren’t possible in personality, because it is subjective. Each person has specific traits which make him unique. Allport (1961) have identified 3 types of personal traits which vary from person to person. Cardinal traits are particular, all-pervading disposition which dictates and directs almost all of an individual’s behaviour. Central traits are basic building blocks which make up the core of personality and this directly contributes to the individual’s dealing and adjustment with the surrounding. Secondary traits are minor traits which less consistent and influential than central traits. The same trait might be central for one person, while secondary for another, and might be irrelevant to a third person. Allport (1961) emphasises on uniqueness of the person created by nature which could not be repeated. This fact should be taken into account to develop a science of personality. Holt (1967) argues that the idiographic-nomothetic issue is based on a false dichotomy. All depictions are generalized to some extent. To describe a particular person, we must already have a concept of a person (a general schema about people). A truly unique individual could not be recognised unless it is correlated to a group (Valentine, 1992, p.191). Psychologists agree on general framework of the individual depending on sharing the same respects with others which includes every man like all other men (universal norms), like some other men (group norms), and like no other men (idiosyncratic norms) (Harre, & Lanhenhove, 1995, p. 60). Case study methods are best examples since they have capacity to furnish complete and global understanding of the person. The flexible, long terms and detailed procedural approach eases the judgment to classify people properly. Freud’s (1909) clinical case study method involved interviewing and noting patients for a long duration to interpret them correctly. This also focused on unstructured techniques (free association) to have free and natural expression of the patients’ thoughts and feelings. Piaget (1953) longitudinal studies of cognitive development of his children applied flexible clinical interview method and informal experiments to arrive at correct logical conclusion under given circumstances. Gardner and Gardner (1969) observed chimpanzee Washoe to learn their sign language. The notion that a case study, even an extended case study, can only be exploratory, whereas a social experiment or survey can provide definitive results, is incorrect (Bromley, 1986, p. 15). Platt (1988) described multiple case studies in a particular case study. The uniqueness of each case study is considered while the cases which have identical characteristics fall into same category and are not considered major contributors. Intensive analysis and evolutionary approach make the case study interesting to describe the individual. Becker believes that a good case study may expose ignored characteristics of the person which could be neglected in a larger group study (Verma & Mallick, 1999, p.81). Case study approach of idiographic tool though subjective, long term , it is scientific. Though it contains unstandardised procedures data obtained should be data that is obtained, and the resulting theories and hypotheses should be properly evaluated and constructed (Verma & Mallick, 1999, p.81). A radical idiographic approach does not take into consideration of generalization timeless absolute laws, while nomothetic approach though historically and culturally located, it is dynamic which could change. The tools of positivist paradigm and concepts in natural sciences are thought to be useful in social and psychological sciences. The research methods including objectivity, explanation, prediction, control are applied to get accurate results by ignoring other obstructing factors. But social and historical conditions are influential parameters. Therefore, consideration of these factors in view of socio-political nature of science is referred as ‘social constructionism’. Timeless objective knowledge of external existing conditions considered in social and psychological context are not taken into account. Contemporary theories of social scientist are linked with particular class, ethnicity and sex; and therefore restricted to particular culture and history periods. The global implementation of this approach becomes invalid as the time proceeds. The predicted behaviour might not be right always because of such generalisations (Norwich, 2000, p. 57, 59). References Valentine, E. (1982). Idiographic psychology. In chapter 14 of - E.Valentine Conceptual Issues in Psychology (pages 187 - 201). London: Routledge. Smith, J.A, Harre, R. & Lanhenhove, L.V. (1995). Idiography and the Case Study. In chapter 5 of - H. Smith, J.R. Harre & Luk van Langenhove (Eds). Rethinking Psychology (pages 60 - 69). London: Sage. http://www.cranepsych.com/Psych/Idiographic_versus_nomothetic.pdf Eysenck, Michael W. (1994). Perspectives on psychology. Edition: illustrated, reprint. Published by Psychology Press. Reynolds, Cecil R. & Fletcher-Janzen, Elaine. (2001). Concise encyclopedia of special education: a reference for the education of the handicapped and other exceptional children and adults. Contributor Cecil R. Reynolds, Elaine Fletcher-Janzen. Edition: 2, illustrated. Published by John Wiley and Sons. Jensen, Arthur Robert & Nyborg, Helmuth. (2003). The scientific study of general intelligence: tribute to Arthur R. Jensen. Contributor Helmuth Nyborg Edition: illustrated. Published by Elsevier. Porter, Louise & Bennett, James (2005). Gifted Young Children: A guide for teachers and parents. Edition: 2, illustrated, Published by Allen & Unwin. Roeckelein, Jon E. (1998). Dictionary of theories, laws, and concepts in psychology. Edition: illustrated. Published by Greenwood Publishing Group. Verma, Gajendra K. & Mallick, Kanka. (1999). Researching Education: Perspectives and Techniques.Edition: illustrated. Published by Routledge. Norwich, Brahm. (2000). Education and Psychology in Interaction: Working with Uncertainty in Interconnected Fields. Published by Routledge. Read More