Can Occupational Psychology Out Work a Solution To Workplace Bullying - Literature review Example

Occupational Psychology Can Out Work a Solution To Workplace Bullying What Occupational Psychologists Do Occupational psychologyis one specialized field of psychology that seeks to improve the performance of people at work and in training, as well as enhance their level of satisfaction with their jobs. For organizations, its chief concern is to increase their effectiveness by looking into how an organization works and affects the people in it (Wedderburn, 2004). To achieve these ends, the professional practice of occupational psychology embraces many areas of psychology, among them personnel management, time and stress management, industrial health and safety, applied and industrial psychology, and ergonomics. The content or subject matter is thus drawn from a wide variety of fields, including psychology, sociology, business administration, economics, industrial engineering, systems engineering, human resource management, and organizational behavior study (Nichols, 2004). Because of this wide scope of responsibilities, no occupational psychologist can obtain a professional license unless he proves his sound knowledge and understanding of eight areas of specialization: 1) ergonomics, or the human-machine interaction; 2) design of safe and healthy work environment; 3) design of appropriate tests and exercises for personnel selection and assessment; 4) performance appraisal and career development; 5) counseling and personal development; 6) design and evaluation of training needs; 7) employee relations and motivation; and 8) organizational development and change (Graves & Lindley, 2005). In effect, what the occupational psychologists do for people and organizations in the workplace is conduct appropriate tests and job-related exercises to pinpoint the abilities of individuals and develop their potentials. For this activity, an organization depends on occupational psychologists for the selection process and career counseling. They are also tasked to motivate people by designing payment and reward systems and advising on health and safety promotion. They help people and organizations adapt to change through change in attitudes and behaviors with the end in view of improving service to customers. In the modern-day context of the workplace, they help design machines and computer systems that are easy to use. On and off the job, the occupational psychologist appraises performance and assist people in coping with stress. In making organizations more effective, they advise on the best type of management systems, identify the best human resource strategies, and design jobs that match people’s skills (Psychometrics online). Psychometrics, or the measurement of one’s mental capabilities, is used extensively in occupational psychology to select the candidates best suited for the job. Recruitment of employees becomes more efficient if an occupational psychologist handles the entire process from wording the wanted ad to identifying the most suitable candidates. In this process, they conduct psychological tests and interviews to evaluate the mental balance of candidates, monitor and validate the selection procedures, and design the short-listing methods for the most promising candidates (Ibid). But perhaps the most exacting job of occupational psychologists, for which an increasing number of companies from multinationals to SMEs get the services of these specialists, is that of serving as mediators and managers of organizational conflict, which is closely associated with bullying in the workplace. In such a conflict, some members of an organization tend to receive a raw deal, which, if left unresolved, could destroy the organization over the long haul. Bullying in the Workplace Bullying has been going on in the workplace since time immemorial but gained academic interest only lately, brought about first by the 1976 book “The Harassed Worker” by American Carol Brodsky and then with a series of research work started by Heinz Leymann in 1986 in Scandinavia. In UK, awareness of the phenomenon first came through a 1992 book by Andrea Adams, a journalist who also produced documentaries on the subject. The ill effects of workplace bullying became an increasing concern among government departments, trade unions, employers and employees in UK. In the US, it is called emotional abuse, it is mobbing in Germany, Austria and Sweden, but “whatever you call it, the effects are the same: psychological terrorization (Ellis).” It arises from a deliberate intent to cause physical or psychological distress to others (Ibid). The most popular definition of workplace bullying is harassing, offending, socially excluding someone or negatively affecting someone’s work tasks, applying to a particular activity, interaction or process, in the course of which the person being bullied ends up in an inferior position and becomes a target of a systematic and negative social acts (Beswick, et al., 2006). Bullying behaviors fall into two general categories: personal and work-related. An example of personal bullying is making offensive remarks repeatedly about one’s private life and giving that person the “silent treatment,” while work-related acts of bullying include giving meaningless tasks or withholding critical information needed by the target (Leymann, 1996). These acts of aggression may be passive or active, overt or covert, and downright hostile. Of the personal bullying, the most prevalent are ignoring, marginalizing one’s opinions, isolating, insulting, bawling out, spreading malicious rumors, dirty looks, wrong accusations, persistent criticism and belittling one’s appearance, beliefs and lifestyle. The most common acts of work-related bullying include giving impossible tasks and deadlines, concealing needed information, constant criticism, not giving credit when credit is due, taking credit for another’s work, demotion, denying leaves of absence, assigning heavy workloads, undervaluing one’s contribution and sabotage. There is a consensus in the growing literature on workplace bullying that exposure to it results in illness, which could be psychological or physical in nature. Among the adverse psychological effects are anxiety, depression, stress, irritation and even suicidal thoughts, while the physical harm includes chronic fatigue, sleeping problems, difficulties in concentrating, stomach troubles and burnout (Ellis). In fact, recent research by the University of Manchester’s Institute of Science and Technology showed that as much as half of all stress-related illnesses are directly attributable to bullying in the workplace. For this reason, it was estimated that some 500,000 workers are forced to miss 1,751,000 workdays yearly in UK. This means $55 million in lost wages. Of the confirmed bullies, 66 percent are managers or supervisors and 45.2 percent are fellow workers. For nurses in the study, patients make up 29.8 percent of bullying, and doctors make up 7 percent. Why Employees Bully It is believed that the aggressive behavior attributed to workplace bullies actually starts to develop in childhood (Randall, et al., 2003). When a child wants something, he would cry for it. If the parents and other primary care givers fail to provide the right attention, the child will grow up with a penchant for responding aggressively to tension and stress. An unfulfilled need to possess something may also engender an aggressive behavior, since the desire “to snatch and grab is one of the earliest abuses of power that we know of (Ibid).” To discourage such a behavior at the source, the literature suggests a child development process based on “biological maturation and adequacy of environment (Ellis).” According to Randall, et al. (2003), bullying children are those exhibiting a cognitive makeup and a distinctly hostile intention for others no matter how slight the provocation. Even without provocation, they would invent one as an excuse for their aggressive behavior. In the workplace, most of the bullies are said to suffer from insecurities, with poor or non-existent social skills and little empathy towards others (CSC, 2000). They hide these insecurities by bullying and by getting into the good graces of the boss at the expense of co-employees. They are usually described as loudmouths with poor leadership skills and engage in bullying to ensure their survival. Some of these bullies are actually psychopaths who enjoy seeing others squirm and suffer (Ibid). Prevention and Intervention Workplace bullying can be addressed by organizational intervention, with specialists in occupational psychology acting as mediators. This means counseling and rehabilitation for both the bullies and their targets. For the bullies, Hoel & Cooper (2001) suggest a variety of techniques, including debriefing, narrative therapy, cognitive behavior therapy, psychotherapy and use of self-help groups. The first requirement is to understand the typical personality makeup of the bullies in order to determine what motivates them to victimize their victims (CSC, 2000). For the organization involved, it can explore ways to prevent senior managers from dealing with bullies and find out what makes other people abet or ignore bullying. It can then adopt company policies and intervention measures based on these studies as well as on sound theory. The Olweus program is an example of a good bullying intervention strategy designed by Dan Olweus for Norwegian schools but could work as well in the workplace. Under the program, adults are encouraged to demonstrate warmth and take positive interests in the pupils (in the workplace, the adults could be the managers or supervisors and the pupils are the ordinary employees). The organization serves notice that it would not tolerate unacceptable behavior, imposing consistent and non-physical sanctions on violation of these rules (CSC, 2000). For the persons victimized by bullying, the action proposed in the literature includes help from peers, trade union, professional association, general practitioners, lawyers and qualified psychologists or psychiatrists. The common denominator in all support measures is a proven skill in dealing with workplace trauma. The objective here is to help the victims deal with the pain and anger brought on by bullying by teaching them the proper assertive skills. An appropriate intervention strategy requires that it address the antecedents of bullying, with the program directed at three levels: prevention, intervention and rehabilitation. Organizational or team context is crucial when designing a bullying intervention program (Beswick, et al., 2006). This strategy works for a public transport firm in Italy that developed a bullying intervention strategy as part of its human resource development program. In response to perceived incidents of bullying among employees, the company served notice that such acts were unacceptable and drew up procedures for making a relevant complaint. Management monitors the workplace and provides appropriate information and training. These activities sent a clear message to employees and potential recruits that bullying would not be allowed in the workplace (Ibid). Such a strategy was also put to good use by the UK-based Occupational Psychology Services Ltd. (OPS), which maintains a second office in Norway, for an unnamed government directorate that was having some problem on bullying in the form of one-upmanship in its management team. The assigned task of the OPS was to build a cohesive team out of the government agency’s director and its senior and middle managers and manage the perceived internal and external conflict that existed between and among these individuals. For starters, the OPS tried to identify the areas of difficulty by having each manager assess himself and then by his colleagues, followed by the psychological profiling of all members of the management team to isolate their personal styles and behaviors, emotional intelligence, innovativeness and team attitude. Afterwards, individual sessions were conducted with the managers to gain insights on what prevent them from working harmoniously with each other. The penultimate activity consisted of a 2-day workshop using psychometrics to increase mutual understanding, manage internal and external conflict and develop teamwork and leadership styles. The OPS work was capped by a one-day session with the managers to evaluate the outcome of the team building effort. It was found that the director and the management team of the government directorate came away from the experience with a shared and clearer goal for their organization. Their personal relationships also improved, their morale is higher and inter-personal communication between them better. (Clark online) In sum, the work of an occupational psychologist may be advisory, technical or administrative in character and may also involve teaching or research. Often, they work for big organizations in both the public and private sector and manage training centers and private consultancies. They may be seen working alongside managers, trade union leaders, training officers and other specialists in industry. But the civil service is probably their largest employer since occupational psychologists are to be found in the prison service, the defense establishment and the civil service commission (Wedderburn, 2004). For the disadvantaged groups, occupational psychologists design awareness and training programs for managers on personnel policy and training for women, the disabled and ethnic minorities (Psychometrics online). References: Beswick, J., Gore, J. & Palferman, D. (2006). “Bullying at Work: A Review of the Literature.” Harper Hill: Derbyshire, UK. Canada Safety Council (2000). “Bullying in the Workplace.” Online at: http://www. safety.council.org/info/OSH/bullies.html Clark, K. “About OPS.” Available online at: http://www.opsltd.com/www/ Content/default.asp?pid=2 Ellis, A. “Bullying in the Workplace – An Acceptable Cost?” Rskin College, Oxford, UK. Fox, G. & Taylor, D. (2003). “Conflict Management: Style Isn’t Just for the Catwalk.” In Training and Management, August 2003; Occupational Psychology Services Ltd., Kent, UK. Graveling, R. (2007). “Occupational Psychology.” Institute of Occupational Medicine, Edinburgh, UK. Hoel, H. & Cooper, C. (2001). “Origins of Bullying: Theoretical Frameworks Explaining Bullying.” In N. Tehrani (ed) Building a Culture of Respect: Managing Bullying at Work, London: Taylot & Francis. Leymann, H. (1996). “The Content and Development of Mobbing at Work.” European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology 5 (2). Psychometrics. “What is a Chartered Occupational Psychologist?” Available online at: http://www. psychometrics.co.uk/what.htm Randall, P., Coyne, I., Smith, L., Chong, P. & Seyne, E. (2003). “Self and Peer Nominations of Bullying: An Analysis of Incident Rates, Individual Differences and Perceptions of the Working Environment.” European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology 12. Wedderburn, Z. (2004). “Occupational Psychology.” Available online at: http://www. bps.org.uk/careers/areas/occupational.cfm#07 Read More