Contribution of Biological and Social Influences to Human Psychological Functioning - Essay Example

Contribution of biological and social influences to human psychological functioning Introduction An in-depth analysis of human psychological functioning hinges on analyzing contributions based on the topic language and meaning from social constructionists view. Cooper and Roth allege that the language is a unique ability in humans and in their interest to study language; they are drawn to seek the origin and evolution of this art. In a behavioural observation, these psychologists tend to believe that although non-humans or animals have a manner of communicating, their is a method of communication widely varies from that of humans (Cooper and Roth, 2007). Non-humans do not have the capacity to utter words but in some way, can communicate by alerting others in instances of danger. Psychology of Language and meaning One of the theories described by Cooper as evolutionary asserts that there are adaptational pressures that have played a role in producing a specified human language. Evidences of physical differences between humans and non-human animals produced through natural selection are aligned with this perspective. Under normal circumstance, the human vocal chords are placed lower below the larynx as in the case of non-human animals- a factor that makes the tongue lighter to pronounce words and make sounds. The evolutionary perspective observes the kinds of adaptational pressures that could have produced the species-specific characteristics of human language (Cooper and Roth 2007). If the theory of language is an evolved element, psychologists will have to find evidence of physical differences between human and non-human animals that would have been produced through natural selection. Considered as an adaptational process, the ability to speak entails a process that is well coordinated. Due to such contributions, it became apparent that all aspects of human functioning were interdependent and understanding them necessitated a holistic analysis of all aspects. Discussed below are the biological and social influences contributing to the psychological understanding of language, and sex and gender. Language encompasses a system of signs and words used by a group of people to express their feelings and thoughts. It facilitates communication, which plays a pivotal role in ensuring the transmission of messages between individuals. Culture defines language, dictating phonological and semantic rules are pertaining to a specific language.. Language also unites individuals who speak the same language providing them with a sense of belonging. Psychologists Abraham Maslow cites “love and belonging” as one of the human needs, which when satisfied result in an individual’s self-actualization (Cooper & Roth, 2007). Both the evolutionary and social constructionist approaches stomach the fact that language is social and takes place between two or more people through the process of social interaction that prescribes meaning in a language. Language is based on a day-to-day conversation and interaction with other media. Language development occurs during the pre-operational stage of cognitive development. It is theorized that children develop cognitive structures referred to as schemas, which enabled them to learn the different languages rules specific to their culture. Children in this stage use language to communicate their thoughts and feelings, as their vocabulary expands from simply babbled words to short meaningful phrases. Despite the differences in their theories, both scholars agreed that the language acquisition occurs at a faster rate in childhood, as it is a sensitive critical period. Research findings from comparative studies on second language acquisition in children and adults confirms that the former acquire second language faster than their counterparts (Cooper & Roth, 2007). The brain plays a pivotal role in controlling the comprehension and production of language. The Broca’s area located in the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex governs the physical production of language. Conversely, the Wernicke’s area located in the temporal lobe governs speech comprehension. Damage to any of these parts constitutes language deficiencies, which in turn affects an individual’s ability to learn. Aphasia or language impairment occurs along a continuum, from mild to severe. There are different types of aphasia; for example, Wernicke’s aphasia (characterized by inability to construct meaningful sentences), Broca’s aphasia (characterized by difficulties in production of speech), and Global aphasia (characterized by difficulties in production and comprehension or spoken and written language). Individuals afflicted by aphasia suffer from psychological difficulties, such as impaired social interactions, emotional outbursts resulting from pent up frustration, and damaged self-concept. Therefore, it is incumbent upon people around aphasics to exercise patience during the communication process (Cooper & Roth, 2007). Psychology of sex and gender According to Cooper and Roth, Sex and gender are used interchangeably by many people and are distinct in meaning from each other. Sex refers to physiological traits (chromosomal, hormonal, gonadal, and morphologic), which distinguish between males and females. Sex is an innate predisposition common to all humans whereby, the distinguishing traits of both sexes do not vary within different societal contexts. The subject on the psychology of sex and gender is diverse in the sense. From a social constructionist approach, the world is constructed in language and biological sex is not key in determining what it is to be a male or female. This view holds that the anatomical differences that we are born with are not attached in any way with the differences in gender (Cooper & Roth, 2007). Biologically, sex and gender is, however, defined in regards to differences in hormones, genetic inheritance and brain structures. The evolutionary psychology also holds a different approach in which humans are thought to have evolved from sexual selection with the behaviours leading to a successful selection. This theory emphasizes that sexual behaviours, partner selections were already predetermined during the evolutionary period of history and that the differences in gender are just coded within genes (Cooper & Roth, 2007). These two views tend to hold similar views according to Cooper and Roth since they view sex and gender in light of the biological level. The psychodynamic perspective is also unique in that the objects of knowledge are distinctly psychological and combines both the biological and the cultural factors on the explanations of gender (Cooper & Roth, 2007). This approach takes into considerations the family dynamics, the anatomical differences when analyzing, and explaining elements on gender. These views, therefore, seem to be complimenting the biological and social constructionist’s theories. Conversely, gender is a socially constructed term that categorizes individuals from opposite sexes based on societal roles, behaviours, and expectations defined by the society. Gender is a learned or cultural significance of sex characterized by varying classifications within different societal contexts. Both sex and gender play a pivotal role in influencing the psychological functioning of individuals. In studying the psychology of sex and gender, a biological approach defines sex and gender on the grounds of differences in hormones, genetically inheritance and brain structure. Complex interactions on nature and nurture shape the differences between the two genders. Sex differences predetermine brain functioning, emotional responses, and behaviours displayed by individuals from opposite sexes. They uncovered differences in the size (the amygdala is larger in males), quantity of sex hormone receptors, rate of development and medial amygdala (males possessed 80% more excitatory synapses). From a tender age, various socialization agents such as parents, teachers and peers among others socialize highly impressionable children into their gender differentiated social roles. Young boys learn that they are more superior to their female counterparts, as they develop characteristics associated with leadership such as strength, competitiveness, toughness and control. Conversely, young girls learn how to nurture, empathize and submit to their domineering male counterparts (Cooper & Roth, 2007). Gender socialization advances discrimination of women by exalting men. As a result, inequality persists within different facets of society such as discrimination in educational institutions, at the station and in the political arena. Psychologists infer that gender differences predetermine emotional responses and behavioural differences displayed by both sexes. Men find it difficult to display emotions associated with weakness such as sadness or fear, as the society shuns such displays. Conversely, society also shuns women who display aggressive behaviours and emotions such as hardiness because the society views women as docile and prone to emotional outbursts (Cooper & Roth, 2007). However, continuous gender discrimination contributed to empowering women. In response to the oppressive masculine culture, feminism emerged advocating for equality of all sexes and an end to gender discrimination. The feminist movement continues to make great strides towards equalizing the playing field by empowering women intellectually, financially and socially. For example, single women no longer bear the burden of choosing to pursue their careers instead of raising a family. Despite milestones accomplished by feminists, deconstruction of gender remains an on-going process. Conclusion In conclusion, biological and social influences enlighten our understanding of human psychological functioning. The Wernicke’s area and Broca’s area, which are parts of the brain control language comprehension and production respectively. However, language acquisition is predominantly influenced by socialization whereby, socialization agents teach children rules specific to their language. Psychological issues arise when an individual’s brain structures responsible for language are impaired or circumstances in the society are not conducive for learning language. In addition, sex is a biological term that differentiates between males and females. Physiological differences influence emotional and behavioural disparities among males and females. Conversely, gender is socially constructed and results in gender discrimination likely to affect the psychological functioning of females. Human behaviours, emotional responses and mental functions are the cornerstones of human psychological functioning. References Open University. Exploring Psychology Course Team., Cooper, T., Roth, I., & Open University. (2007). Challenging psychological issues: Mapping Psychology. Milton Keynes: Open University. Read More