Traditional Psychology With an Increased Context Reference - Essay Example

This essay represents the discourse of critical psychology about the nature of child development as opposed to the path represented by the traditional approach. The essay views the cultural environment that led to changes in the views on child psychology. These views on psychology have impacted the role of the child in the family and cultural setup and led to the design of education methodology. Traditional psychology and critical psychology Traditional psychology has focused on individual learning and growth. Critical psychology focuses on the context of ‘social justice, promoting the welfare of communities in general and oppressed groups in particular, and altering the status quo of society…’ (Fox & Prilleltensky, 2009, p. 4). Traditional psychology evolved with the use of a variety of approaches. The start with the Darwinian evolutionary approach gradually gave way to social, cognitive, emotional and physical considerations and amalgamations of the approaches. Initially, infantile behaviour was considered akin to that of primates. …devoid of the trappings of adult training and (Western) civilisation…the individual in his or her lifetime reproduces the patterns and stages of development exhibited by the development of the species… the child of the time was equated with ‘savage’ or ‘undeveloped’ (Burman, 2008, p. 14). Darwin was the forerunner of thought in developmental psychology. He observed the capacity of the infant to convey a variety of emotions through changes in expression within the first two months of life. His evolutionary explanation led to the ‘emphasis on changes that occur as a function of time, both in the extremely long time scale of evolution and over the individual lifespan (Harris & Butterworth, 2002, p. 7).’ The traditional model emphasised the impact of genetic or environmental factors and an absence of ‘coupling between organism and environment’ that required a mapping of the external world to the mind (Richardson, 2000, p.7). The behavioural view was followed by the assumption that interaction of the organism with its environment determines behaviour. This theory assumes an evolution of mental systems to form learned actions. Learning occurred ontogenetically and evolutionally. Child development was to be mapped to a ‘correct or natural course’ (Morss & Harre, 1990, p. 34). Critical psychology focuses on the need to understand the larger issues at play in the psychological development of the child. Traditional theorists view the nature of upbringing in ancient cultures as lacking nurturance. Canella quotes the belief of DeMause (1974) that ‘infanticide was common in ancient cultures. Children… were more likely to be sexually abused, beaten, abandoned and receive poorer quality care (Canella, p. 5). A counter-view is that of French who found that analysing beliefs regarding childcare in the cultural context would reveal a tendency towards nurturance. An exploration of the debate brings to light the fact that though Christianity is considered to be the cause of a change in attitudes towards children, abandonment and infanticide continued to occur. Canella puts forth the argument that the notion of a child being viewed as needy which means weaker, innocent which means lacking knowledge as opposed to adults being strong, wise, knowledgeable is a construct that puts power in the hands of the adult and creates a requirement for advocates to voice the children’s needs. Innocence calls for the sharing of only ‘safe’ knowledge. ‘Young human beings are no longer agents in their own world, but those who must be limited and regulated.’ (Canella, p. 35). This leads to a form of imperialism that imposes a code of conduct defined by a set of adults and the voices and needs of the children remain unheard. Canella points to the presence of ‘hidden/ disqualified knowledge’ and ‘power production’ that place authority in the hands of uncertain adults on the assumption that superior understanding comes with greater size and age. The oversimplified worldview of superior adults and dependent children is embodied in the ‘monocultural enlightenment view exhibited by the European elite in the creation of the poor, women and the mentally ill as subordinate groups, those who like animals are not equal to the superior group.’ (Canella, p. 37). Critical psychology points out the presence of a bias that assumed men as more capable of scientific unemotional observation of children as against the more personalised scientific observation by women. This bias predisposed the men to view themselves as intellectually superior to the object of their study. Later, the upper-class gentry of Europe who were concerned with the state of the ‘feebleminded’ who lived in abject poverty, seen as a human trait rather than a set of social circumstances, conducted a study to observe understand and control the subjects (Canella, p. 54). The very basis of developmental psychology was mired in status- and gender-bias and further theories have been expostulated on these observations. Canella highlights Broughton’s (1987) view that the ‘construction of bodies of knowledge represents the advocacy or particular values.’ A concept of development as a truth has been universally accepted for all human beings with its categorisation as social, cognitive and so on. Piaget’s beliefs reflected the social constructs of his time, ‘mental was privileged over the active, contributing to the thinking versus doing dichotomy,…knowledge is described as progressively more adequately organised, adult is privileged over child,…autonomy is actually imperialist in that some cultures do not value individualistic models of humanity ( P. 57).’ Child rearing The nature versus nurture debate has been variously tackled by theorists. The importance of both these aspects are now being realised with the ‘understanding of how children’s characteristics are evocative of parenting practices… and the importance of studying… gene-environment interactions by which children with different heritable characteristics are affected differently by the environment…’ (Damon and Lerner, 2006, p. 26). Both factors occurring from nature and nurture are necessary but are a few among many causes from which change emerges (Richardson, 2000, p. 9). Watson put forth a view of child rearing that provided lesser significance to parental involvement in defining personality and considered ‘learning to be the key mechanism for pacing and stabilising of behaviour development from birth to maturity (Damon and Lerner, 2006, p. 131).’ Bowlby’s attachment theory, on the other hand, placed emphasis on the importance of the role of the mother in the development of the child. Burman highlights the presence of an attitude, in the mid-eighteenth to mid-nineteenth century in Europe and other parts of the Western world that defined parental duties as ‘striving to ensure the child’s life in the hereafter.’ The short lifespan of the child due to the rampant prevalence of disease coupled with this attitude led to ‘little scope for indulgent, permissive parenting. (Burman, 2008, p. 71). ’Advancement in medicine and the importance of sanitation saw an increased lifespan for children and led to a rise in the notion of children’s ‘needs’ and ‘natural development’ and ‘psycho-analytic ideas were beginning to make their impact in early child education.’ Industrialisation and the consequent emancipation of women in the western world saw a difference in views on child rearing. Earlier disciplinary attitudes gave way to more relaxed methods of child-rearing. The post-World War II phase saw an upsurge in flexibility towards children. Industrialisation led to the rise of child labour in factories which led to reactions over juvenile behaviour in the face of new found economic independence. An effort to manage juvenile behavioural issues was made with the introduction of mass schooling with a curriculum that provided ‘gender-appropriate training to the students (Burman, 2008, p.74). This approach changed the view of the child from independent earning member to dependent. Different historical periods have led to varied approaches in child rearing. The interaction of the state with its citizens has a direct impact of the understanding of the ‘nature of children’ (Burman, 2008, p. 73). The women’s movement and changes in the structuring of the US economy led to the influx of mothers of young children into the workforce (Buffer, LeMonda 2006, p. 137). Institutions were organised to take care of the children while the mothers were at work. Kindergartens were set up as institutions to allow the study of child behaviour. The ‘cultural niche’ model defined by Super and Harkness explains the impact of culture through the factors of ‘the physical and social environment in which child-rearing occurs; customs of child-rearing and child-care (Hoghughi and Long, 2004, p. 89).’ Critical psychology takes the view that a large body of research in developmental psychology was undertaken in the context of a class-ridden post-war attitude. The political economy and maternal love are closely linked. Bowlby’s attachment theory underscores the need for a secure relationship with caregivers in order for normal development to take place. This theory is critiqued since ‘the myopic focus on mothers as the total environment of the child threatens to lead to a reification and abstraction of maternal sensitivity.’ Another flaw is the differentiation of maternal and paternal sensitivity, the mother’s sensitivity is supposed to foster healthy psychological functioning while the father’s lack of it allows for independence and problem-solving (Burman, 2008, p. 139). Women have for long been ruled by the ‘dominant discourse on motherhood’ that follows the notion of the mother’s higher importance in the child’s life. (Canella, p. 14). Societies in which a variety of people care for a child show that it is possible for the child to be well-adjusted to the presence of more than one carer. The Learning Paradigm The behavioural approach was initiated by Piaget et al who defined stages of development and this formed the basis of early study course design. The systematic study of children by Piaget led to the belief in normal chronologically accelerated behavioural development. Piaget et al asserted the concept of cognitive growth in chronological stages, ‘up till the age of about 5, the child almost always works alone. From 5 to about 7 ½, little groups of 2 are formed. Between 7 and 8, the desire manifests itself to work with others (Piaget and others, 2002, p. 42).’ The stages defined by him attempted to explain the ‘development of intelligence and reasoning in humans from its biological roots (Harris & Butterworth, 2002, p. 26).’ Piaget’s theory was utilized to articulate a view of early childhood education that provided learning experiences to young children that were considered suitable to their ages and levels of development, while simultaneously enabling them to ‘construct’ their own learning… as one in which children were seen as ‘young scientists’ busily exploring and experimenting so as to construct a series of mental schemas that were likewise considered representative of their developing understandings of the external world. Piagetian theory led to the development of tests to ascertain the normalcy of growth and capability of the child. It forms the basis for the development of the Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS). The EYFS is defined on the platform of learning concepts put forth by Piaget and Vygotsky, both of whom stressed the importance of problem-solving for learning. It is structured to provide a gradual raise in the level of learning through reflection. The EYFS provides a scale of normal development against which children can be assessed and compared. Fleer notes that educators expect certain behaviours associated with age and a deviation from the expectation is a cause for concern ( 2006, p. 131). This imposed expectation leads to the acceptance of some children as normal and others as slow and difficult. Fleer quotes Vygotsky’s (1998) concept of revolutionary rather than evolutionary pedagogy when the system of teaching does not match the level of the child’s understanding. The teacher should consider the cultural and specific background and adapt the learning model to suit the situation (2006, p. 132). The argument of critical psychology is the utilisation of an evolutionary model as the dominant approach within institutions for early child development without considering child-community interaction. Development milestones that are relevant to the western culture may not be relevant to culturally and linguistically diverse groups. ‘…a rather formal and structured analysis of mental life, too closely wedded to notions of regularity and rule following. Structural analysis tends to detach the scientific observer from the scene, preserving the special status of that observer’s knowledge.’ (Morss, p. 38) Vygotsky considers the interaction of the human being with the physical and social environment and the relevance of learning to life itself. He suggests the need for learning to focus on skill cultivation to be done naturally at a young age so that a child is enabled to incorporate it smoothly into everyday life. For this, he suggests that educators find an extension of the natural methods of learning to speak to learning to read and write. (1978, p. 118). Edwards highlights the connection between education, interaction, participation and understanding and cultural expectation in the search for a meaning of the term constructivism and its application in education. A child is asked to separate paper and food scraps after lunch and is provided an explanation that delves into the purpose and impact of the action (2005, p. 8). This highlights the link between the knowledge shared and its relevance to daily life and to a larger context. How do children learn in the social context? The social approach of Bandura’s (1977) Social Learning Theory contended that children observe same and opposite gender behaviour and adopt that which is appropriate. Bandura later refined the theory with the introduction of the socio-behaviouristic approach with its emphasis on the importance of observational learning as opposed to reinforcement. ‘Internalisation of societal standards comes about through self-regulation, with the suggestion that people maintain their beliefs and values because they judge their own actions (Damon & Richard, 2006, p. 370). Edwards highlights the learning through social interaction in an interview with two teachers who highlight the importance interacting to know the child’s level of understanding and taking knowledge sharing ahead from there. The Bronfenbrenner model of child development considers the interplay of a set of environmental systems. The micro-system considers the child’s interaction with the family and school; the meso-system considers a larger circle to include the peer group; the exo-system refers to decisions made by external agencies that have an impact on the child and macro-system refers to the larger cultural beliefs and definitions (Houghughi and Long, 2004, p. 321). This view adds the perspective of incorporating child-specific contexts in the education blueprint. The classroom approach to learning delineates study from play and other activities. The mode of instruction is to cover a mass of information and drill for retention and demonstration in tests and examinations. While this method of instruction is replete with its own advantages, Wenger argues the higher benefit of learning through participation in the world. The author puts forth a concept of learning that includes specialised knowledge gathering as well as participatory in activities of the world to garner meaning in the ‘experience of the world and our engagement with it (1999, p. 4).’ An extension of this thought is the development of ‘legitimate peripheral participation’ as an approach to learning whereby learners participate in ‘communities of practitioners and the… mastery of knowledge and skill requires… full participation in the sociocultural practices of a community (Lave and Wenger, 1999, p. 29).’ Craft skill imparting is an example of situational learning. The first stage of this type of learning involves active help and directions by the teacher while the second stage involves independent trial and error leading to skill enhancement and innovativeness (Baxter, 2005, p. 52). The definition and demarcation of childhood are replete with social and political meanings. Whether cast in terms of nostalgia or repugnance, the category of childhood is a repository of social representations that functions only by virtue of the relationship with other age and status categories. Self determination theory offers a view of individuals ‘born with innate tendencies to operate on their inner and outer environments in attempts to master them (Buffer, Lemonda, 2006, p. 5). Harris underscores the importance of imagination in children’s capability of managing emotionally charged events. By focussing on the fact that a narrative was just a piece of fiction, the children displayed a capacity to manage their emotions by keeping in touch with the reality-fiction disparity. This aspect of cognitive development involves the inhibition of involvement in the narrative and maintaining the distinction between the imaginary and real world (2000, p. 58-74). The traditional construct of progress as Truth that applies to all human beings is seen as a ‘linear construct…dominated by the Western belief in science and reason…(by) White European males who privileged themselves over those who lived in the past…Progress … establishes moving forward as a standard for normalcy… implies stable laws of nature that can be applied to all beings in all contexts. (Canella, p. 51). Development is a construct that emerges from that of progress Apathetic culture Burman quotes Schepher-Hughes (1989b: 187) as saying that: ‘In circumstances of extreme poverty and competition for resources, selective neglect is often a manifestation of parental interventions on behalf of family survival. (2008, p. 141).’ It is to be recognised that the culture in the Third World country may be ‘infanticide-tolerant’ for reasons of poverty and exhibit behaviours that would be considered in the abhorrent in more affluent societies where survival of the family is not an everyday effort. Bulgaria is a part of the European Union but remains one of the poorest in Central Europe. The fall of the Soviet Union to which Bulgaria’s economy was closely connected and sanctions against Iraq and Serbia led to a worsening of the economic situation. The shift from communism to democracy saw a long phase of political instability and strikes. High inflation and rampant poverty has led to a phenomenon in which children with mild to severe mental deficiencies are ‘dumped’ by the parents into institutions. The parents do not possess the wherewithal to provide for these children since they need round-the-clock care and medication that they can ill afford. At the institution, the children are provided with a modicum of care and poor medical treatment. The care-givers display a feeling that they are working within a set of rules that prescribe limits of action. Cases of mild autism at the time of admission slowly degrade to severe physical disability. One child at the institute shows severe ‘natural malformation (sic)’ caused by the lack of fresh food with variety of vitamins to meet growing needs. The physical degradation that converts a normal, mobile child into being bed-ridden with fragile bones is considered to be natural degradation that comes with the disease. Death of weakened, bed-ridden children is treated casually by the carers. A fragile, highly weakened child is treated by amputating the thumb since the thumb has turned gangrenous. Apart from this, there is no treatment being provided to the child. The skin is pallid and patchy and shows a sign of internal deficiency but no doctor or nurse provides care for the child. The carer states that a child comes under treatment only if there is a fever. Under the current conditions, the Bulgarian government feels that the institution is taking good care of the incumbents. The Director of the Institution feels that the government and she are doing their best, providing the infrastructure and investing in items, the carers are considered to be less efficient and incapable. However, the English commentator expresses shock at the appalling conditions of the institution. The state of the economy and the consequent feeling that whatever is being done for the children is ‘good enough’ leads to a dichotomy in the views about their treatment. The carer agrees that children who entered the institution were energetic and mobile but in some cases, energy has dissipated leaving the child ailing and bedridden and close to death. The parents who have left their children look at institutionalisation as a permanent solution. In one case, the girl (Didi) packs her bag everyday in preparation of returning to her mother who has abandoned her and requested that the girl should not be sent to an institution close to where she stays in case the girl finds her way home. Within the institution, the children go about daily living with the constant spectre of aggression and depression. A quasi-society has been formed. A deaf boy who is prone to severe bouts of aggression (due to his otherwise better mental state) has smaller, weaker children latching on for protection. Violence is rampant with two mute children who are regularly picked on by an individual with a past of physical abuse. They are specifically chosen because of their inability to speak out. The children give vent to frustration by cultivating a habit of swaying back and forth, banging on the walls, destroying and hitting the weaker children. The children sit inside a room. One child starts swaying back and forth and the habit is picked by another child. One girl makes cards representing her love for her mother and packs them in a bag, every day. She makes an effort to communicate the strongest male in the group. The children are provided with no training by an adult group and have settled to instinctive behaviours to manage their internal emotions. The hierarchy at this institution is the government, the director and the subordinate carers and attendants. The Director is responsible for the upkeep of the institution in terms of buildings and valuable fixtures but does not demonstrate a willingness to take responsibility of the children’s health and safety. The carers are responsible to feed and clean the children but their responsibility does not include child health and safety. Wasting away of young bodies is considered a normal part of the disease for which there is no help possible, though there is acceptance that doctors may advise otherwise. ‘Well-being of the individual is predicated on the well-being of the immediate family which in turn is contingent upon community and societal conditions (Prilleltensky and Nelson, 2002, p. 10).’ The adopted apathetic culture among the care-giving set does not portend well for the future of the abandoned, dependent patient group. The carers and Director appear casual about the visible deterioration of the children after institutionalisation. The Director agrees that there is a lack of care which is attributable to excess work among low skilled staff. The amenities are good and the institution is far better than the adult institutes in the country. Is the culture responsible for the apathetic attitude towards mental and physical impairment of a dependent population? The relation of the individual with the environment is found to be determined by the behaviours exhibited by the long term caregivers like the parents. An experiment revealed that pro-social behaviour is exhibited by children who see models of this behaviour in their parents as opposed to children who have not been exposed to it. Older siblings are also exposed to this behaviour when they care for their younger siblings (Harris & Butterworth, XXX, p. 227). This makes the case for learning through observation and experience. Just as the adoption of attitude spreads within a family, a display of apathy soon spirals and becomes rampant among families and toward and within the institution. Living in a particular community of practice will afford particular types of activity (Fleer, XXX, p. 128). The attitude of dumping the impaired children is viewed as a community practice and not considered reprehensible. Developmental changes occur both biologically as well as due to interaction with the environment. This is partially brought out by the behaviours of ‘feral’ children who are brought back into civil society. The children have mentally adapted themselves with the habits of wild animals and display limited ability to mould themselves to human speech and manner. Children left to their own survival devices tend to slip back into savage behaviour and make a case for imbibing ‘civilised’ training at a young age. At a governmental level the response to the criticism of its institutions has been countered by stating that there has been a marked reduction in the number of children being institutionalised. Institution Directors should supervise staff performance and the care delivered and the government guarantee health care, specialised medical and dental care, rehabilitation and therapy. An assessment of the institutes was carried out and all the institutes were found to be up to the standard. Neuropsychology and the child Neuropsychology confirms the presence of stages in neuron development in the physical body at specific stages of growth. Sweet explains the systematic growth of neurons and the development of the brain to enable higher level motor and cognitive activity. The infant is sensitive to experiences with the care-giver at an early age. The ‘relationship with the caregiver is the single most influencing experience of the infant (1999, p. 191).’ Learning based on traditional psychology tends to structure learning into a format that involves a high degree of information and knowledge processing and retention. The human brain is structured to ‘communicate and remember allows us to pass on information from generation to generation (Andrewes, 20002, p. 6).’ Beaumont and Monti point out the use of behavioural models like operant conditioning techniques for patients who require help to restore physical capabilities. These methods are of use to manage the frequency of epileptic seizures especially when there is poor social communication or motivational deficiency (Beaumont & Monti, 1983, p. 285). The science of neuropsychology utilises the methods that have been devised as a part of traditional psychology and highlight the relevance of the practices in learning and skill enhancement. The contextual reference of traditional psychology is relevant to the study of this science since it focuses on the development on the individual in the context of immediate surroundings and their impact on the growing brain. Conclusion Critical psychology aims to draw attention to the political context of learning along side the theoretical framework. One of the main negatives of traditional psychology is the focus on Western European culture as the base for development of early years design. The culture is steeped in norms based on affluence and resource availability. However, the example of the children of Bulgaria highlights the low influence of West European culture in defining the treatment of the mentally and physically impaired. Practices that are viewed as abhorrent to the western mental frame are considered acceptable and justified as being better than the systems elsewhere. The local cultural and economic conditions allow for practices to prevail despite the presence of an education system that is steeped in a different cultural frame. Another critique of traditional psychology is the lack of developmental disparity accepted in the education system. Some children appear to be slow since their development does not match the norms set down by traditional theorists. This view can be countered by the fact that the presence of a norm creates the understanding of an acceptable deviation and highlights the situation of extreme deviation from the norm. Extreme deviations from normal development can be catered to with the use of specific training design. In the absence of the norm, acceptable and extreme deviations from the norm would be difficult to observe and cater to. Education for the ‘others’ becomes possible by setting up institutions and education design specifically tuned to the needs of the ‘other’ types of learners. The use of systematic study and observation and the production of curriculum in line with the mental capacity of the normal child create a differential education base for the normal child and the others. This approach possesses the merit of imparting important knowledge in specialised areas like medicine, engineering and other scientific study. Teaching in critical psychology has its base in Friere’s concepts of conscientisation and praxis. The former exposes the student to psychological and socio-political circumstances that affect them and the latter highlights the need to critically reflect and act upon the world to drive change (Prilleltensky and Nelson, 2002, p. 39). Friere espoused the importance of education involving dialogue and idea exchange to generate thought and understanding. An important part of the critical discourse is the questioning of ‘older’ authority that is imposed on the young human being. The development of habits related to blind obedience and the assumption of progress being related to an expression of approval by significant elders is closely associated with the assumption of age-related authority. Development of the ability to question and discuss issues to generate thought is an important aspect of learning that critical psychology espouses. Traditional psychology with an increased context reference and greater cultural sensitivity will move closer to the value statements brought up by the critiques of the method. References Andrewes, David G. (2002), Neuropsychology: From theory to practice. Psychology Press. Balter, Lawrence & Tamis-LeMonda, Catherine Susan (2006), Child psychology: a handbook of contemporary issues. CRC Press. Baxter, Jane Eva (2005), The archaeology of childhood: Children, gender, and material culture. Rowman Altamira. Beaumont, J. Graham & Monti, Peter M. (1983), Introduction to Neuropsychology. Guilford Press. Burman, Erica, (2008), Deconstructing developmental psychology. Routledge, UK. Cannella, G.S (1997), Deconstructing Early Childhood Education Social Justice and Revolution. Peter Lang Publishing, Inc, New York.   Damon, William, Lerner, Richard M. & Eisenberg, Nancy (2006), Handbook of Child Psychology: Social, emotional, and personality development. John Wiley and Sons. 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