Memory: How is it created and to what Extent can we Trust it - Essay Example

? Memory: How is it created and to what Extent can we Trust it This research paper aims at exploring the creation of memory and the frailties that accompany memory to the extent that it cannot be trusted. A major focus of this paper is debunking false memories. This is a genuine call that should erode the confidence that people bear on their memory because there is no guarantee that all memories are exact. The paper will include an introduction that gives a brief overview of the term memory. In addition, the paper will focus on the significance and purpose of the study. The paper also includes a part on the research questions, which the study seeks to answer, literature review and a discussion on the topic. The study unfolds how memory is created by focussing on the various categories of memory. The paper will end with a summative conclusion that summarizes the contents of the research paper. Introduction Every person has ingrained short and long-term memories arising from interaction with other people or witnessing events. A significant part of people’s moral and social life hinges on memories. Memory incorporates a varied set of cognitive capacities by which people preserve and reconstruct past experiences, usually for current experiences. Memory forms an essential part in which people’s past experiences animate their present actions and experiences. The ability to reconstruct the past avails an aspect of personal identity. However, sometimes memory becomes erroneous routinely and dramatically, which raises the question; can it be trusted? The vulnerability of memory is exposed by happenings such as aviation disasters caused by forgetfulness and inconsistent eye witness accounts. Purpose of the Research Memory is essential as it allows us to store information for later use. Memory enhances most of the aspects that people take pleasure in their lives, for example, socially significant practices such as promises and commemorations. Memory shapes people’s perception of the world through learning, reasoning, and decision making. An understanding of memory is crucial in making sense of one self and people’s experiences of time and events. In order to do this, human beings need to master the processes involved in learning of memory. Moreover, it is critical to comprehend the extent to which the memory learnt can be trusted. There are several processes involved in the learning of memory. The rationale of this paper is to analyze how human beings learn memory. In addition, the study will evaluate the measure to which memory can be relied upon. The discussion provides the connection between memory and society. The paper has a bias as it will not dwell on physical/biochemical characteristics of memory. Significance of the Research The results from this paper will give insights on creation of memory and whether it can be trusted. The results of this paper will also avail an understanding of aspects of memory and how those aspects impinge on the lives of people. Of much interest will be the vulnerability and fallibility of human memory, which has remarkable consequences for the law since it casts substantial doubts on reliability of eyewitness testimony. The findings of this paper will give the reader the relationship between true and false memories as well how to tell if a particular is true or fake. Research Questions Memory is pervades all facets of people’s lives and can be thought of as the effort to retain information. People have vast amounts of knowledge stored in their memory system which they are able to access quickly and effortlessly. This implies that, stored knowledge must be highly organized to allow easy retrieval for the appropriate information for a given situation. In light of this, study seeks to address how information is, encoded into memory, stored in the memory, retrieved from memory, and the extent to which memory can be trusted. Literature Review Reinforcement of memory occurs through repetition of tasks (Stephen & Tom 2011, p.96). They also interrogate the systems used during both active and passive encoding of information. The authors conclude that, during active encoding, a dissimilar memory system is utilized for where and when information as opposed to during passive encoding. Encoding of what information appears to rely on episodic memory processing in both active and passive. Human memory exhibits immense capacity, flexibility, and durability (Braddeley 1999, p.1). Memory is an alliance of systems that cooperate, hence enabling people to learn past experiences and predict the future. He also notes that people have differential memory abilities in both verbal/acoustic memory and visual memory. Verbal coding plays a critical role in human memory. Even when one is remembering visual elements, or recollecting actions or episodes; there is a strong inclination to complement other aspects of memory by verbalising, such as translating visual cues to both verbal and visual (Baddeley 1999, p.7). Learning transpires through transfer of information from short-term memory into long-term memory. Remembering occurs when information flows from long-term memory into short-term memory (Martinez 2010, p.63). Unlike a video camera, human memory is highly selective in what it stores. Similarly, the human mind is also distortive, sometimes people remember past experiences that are opposite to what happened. Human memory is a pattern finder as well as a pattern maker (Elizabeth 1996, p.89). Elizabeth established that false memories can be stimulated through suggestion. Similarly, she also indicated that the memories can become bigger and more vibrant as time elapses. Discussion As a result of varied terminologies used in the literature, there are varied definitions of memory. Memory is the process of storing and retrieving information (Baddeley 1999, p.7) Memory does not encompass a single entity, but an assortment of different systems that bear the capacity to programme, store, and recover information. Encoding refers to the process of formulating a memory code that enables the information to be put in memory (Michael 2010, p.62). These processes usually involve attention whereby focus is laid on a contracted range of stimuli or events. Storage, on the other hand, involves maintenance of the encoded information over time. Lastly, retrieval deals with recovery of information from the memory stores. Initiation of retrieval of information from the memory is done through cueing and attention (Martinez 2010, p.65). Retrieval of information mainly occurs when one encounters prompt intentions. These processes are fundamental and hold clue as to why memory works or fails. Memory failure may occur inter alia, the three levels. In practice, there exist close interactions between remembrance, perception, and imagining. However, memory differs from the two as it mostly dwells on events that occurred. Memory takes various forms, and people are conscious when storing memory, even though what that information is and for how long it is to be retained determines the nature of the memory. The process of creation, storage, and retrieval of long-term memory is spread throughout multiple regions of the brain ((Magnussen & Helstrup 2007, p.157). In order to understand the subject matter of memory, it is critical to evaluate some of the theoretical frameworks on memory, which include Atkinson and Shiffrin information processing model which holds that, information ought to pass through two transitory storage buffers prior to placement into more stable storage where it can be retrieved for later use. This approach categorises memory into sensory memory, which incorporates both iconic memory and echoic memory. It also involves short-term memory as well as long-term memory (Martinez 2010, p.65). Long-term memory can be categorized into explicit memories and implicit memories. Explicit memories involve those that people consciously remember such as an event in one’s life. Implicit memories are those that are unconscious and do not require any prompting, such as riding a bike (Elizabeth 1996, p.88). Long-term memory incorporates anything that a person remembers from just few minutes ago to many years back. Long-term memory employs retaining of information into the system, which can be indefinite. However, long-term memory does not bear equal strength since some memory may be easy to recall whereas others need prompting or may never be recollected. Long-term memory is never static, as people revise their memory over time (Baddeley 1999, p.16). The undertaking of this is accomplished through merging with other pieces of information. In most cases, people incorporate what others account with the memory present. This herald the problem of vulnerability of memory as it becomes difficult to tell apart true memory from false. Various theories expound on how retrieval of information from the long-term memory is accomplished such as through retrieval cues and memory searches. Retrieval cues are stimuli that unlock pathways to the memory. The various types of stimuli include words, pictures, feelings, and odours. The effectiveness of the retrieval process hinges on how specific the encoding is. Memory searches, on the other hand, are classified into serial searches and parallel searches. Serial searches involve proactive verification of items, from one item to the next. Parallel searches evaluate numerous items concurrently. The various types of long-term memory include episodic memories, declarative memories, visual memories, and procedural memories. The varying types of memories have their own mode of operation, although they cooperate in the process of memorization. The interconnected subsystems of long-term memory include procedural memory, which develops from procedures and habit such as skill memories. Episodic memories (experiential memory) involve memories of an event as well as experiences, in which analysis of aspects of what and where was done (Stephen & Tom 2011, p.98). It also needs causal connection between events for an effective recollection of the events. Declarative memory involves memory for items of knowledge such as facts and concepts. Declarative memory is independent of occasions from where they are obtained. It incorporates the summation of all attained knowledge such as symbols, appearance of objects, principles, schemas, and scripts. Semantic memory, which is a sub-branch of declarative memory, entails memory for words, their meanings, and concepts, causal to general knowledge and concepts. This memory can be retrieved through application of parallel searches and network models (Baddeley 1999, p.171). Sensory memory deals with registration of information through the five senses; seeing, hearing, feeling, and smelling. This storage of memory is incredibly short within the sensory register. In addition, the storage of sensory impressions is in forms that ape the original sensation. Most of the information that enters sensory register is never processed. This is because people solely process information that they have understood (Baddeley 1999, p.10). Short- term memory, on the other hand, is in charge of storing information provisionally and determining if the information is to be dismissed or reassigned to long-term memory. This process happens in a fraction of a minute. There are two categories of short-term memory; visual and verbal memories. These memories translate into working memories. Short-term memory incorporates two sets of components; recent events that have just transpired and events that need to be retrieved from long-term memory. Working memory can hold information for a long period as long as it is rehearsed (Baddeley 1999, p.15). Attention precipitates loss to new information that may overwrite the current information. Memory is influenced by a multiplicity of factors such as age as well as clinical conditions such as traumatic brain injuries. As people grow older, the amount of time that short-term memory can store information shortens. This also affects the process of successfully moving the information into long-term memory. This in turn, leads to slowing down of cognitive processes and precedence memory lapses (Johnson & Raye 1998, p. 144). This is not to say that only old people experience memory lapses. The capability to remember details about experiences is also pegged on importance, whereby crucial features are preserved and filtered out; while immaterial or predictable detail is shattered or stored in a manner that they are unavailable in their unique form. Forgetting is not a dreadful thing in itself, since in some way it lessens emotional pain and grief in the case of a person who has unpleasant memories. Memory errors can be categorized into two; the first categories, retrospective memory errors, involve situations in which attempts to retrieve information successfully from memory is thwarted. Retrospective memory hinges on level of learning or exposure. Often encountered or practiced information in the past becomes easier to retrieve in the future. The other memory error encompasses forgetting of intentions (Baddeley 1999, p.110). This memory error is referred to as prospective memory failure. Prospective memory differs from retrospective memory in the sense that the latter demands retrieval of information at some moment when the intention is to be executed. Magnussen & Helstrup (2007, p.183) conclude that the organization of knowledge determines the processes required to access that information on a future occasion. The analysis of new items entering the memory system is done in stages. The initial stages analyze perceptual elements of the entry, such as visual or acoustic characteristics. Later stages analyze its meaning, including the categories of whether it fits into and if it is connected to other items in memory. Every stage of processing implants some outline in memory. The profound the plane of processing, the apparent is the trace and the more robust the memory will be. Conversely, shallow level of processing of information yields transitory memory. People sometimes perceive memory to be like a video recorder, which perfectly records and stores every bit of information that takes place with absolute precision and clarity. This is far from the truth; human memory is sometimes a victim of fallacy. Most people would admit that personal memories of past episodes are the dearest part of their life, and think that they could be false, does no add up. There are burgeoning signs, indeed, that something may have gone badly wrong with people’s memories; we can no longer hold them to be absolute and true (Elizabeth 1996, p.3). Human memory is fallible and prone to distortion. The things that people hold vividly to be true may turn out to be false. This raises an upsetting question if people can trust any of their memories. Exposure to misinformation provokes memory distortion hence it become difficult telling true memories from false. A thin line demarcates true memory from pseudo memory (Baddeley 1999, p.200). Memory distortions vary from benign (a person thinking that he/she has completed a certain task whereas he/she had only thought about it), to the severe (such as confusing witness accounts in, which a person confuses what he/she heard with what he/she saw). False memory is an invention or misrepresented recollection of an event that did not feature. Creation of false memories stems from modification of true memories over time (Johnson & Raye 1998, p.137). However, they may also be created from right from the start such as fantasises and out-and-out fabrications. These are called implanted false memories. The undertaking of many studies has illustrated the ease with which false memories may be implanted. Nevertheless, false memories do not necessarily have to be implanted since they can as well emerge from modification of true memories (Magnussen & Helstrup 2007, p.157). In cases of false memories, the bearer cannot differentiate as to whether the memory he/she is recalling is a true memory or false memory. False memory stems from misinformation or misattribution of the original information. Similarly, present memories and experiences may also get in the way of formation of new memories leading to inaccurate recollection of an event. Interaction between memory and emotion is also critical in this debate since strong emotions may reinforce as well as weaken real memories (Johnson & Raye 1998, p.139) Similarly, false memories, once implanted, may draw strong emotions hence aping valid ones. Emotionally charged memories are hard to repress, but they may be distorted some bit. False memories do not entirely have a common derivation as they depend on the gaps that manifested themselves prior to interpolation of the memory (Magnussen & Helstrup 2007, p.183). Conclusion The questions posed in the entire paper were how memory is created and whether people should trust their memories. A number of processes are involved in the creation of the various types of memories. With regard to whether people trust their memory, the answer is that, indeed, they should and they do; people trust their memory. In addition, people should pay attention to source monitoring processes since they can be able to decipher when memories correspond to reality and when they fail. People should always be cautious about the validity of their memory. The feelings of remembering or not remembering as in the case of unclear, contradictory, or questionable recollections are healthy for the welfare of people. For instance, repressing of unpleasant memories helps the victim to live a positive life. Accurate memory is demonstrated by knowledge on when we remember as well as when we do not. Now it is clear that, the delicate balance of encoding, consolidation, reactivation, and recovery processes should be maintained. References List Baddeley, D. (1999). Essentials of human memory, East Sussex, Psychology Press. p. 7. Elizabeth, L. (1996). Eyewitness testimony, Cambridge, Harvard University Press. p. 88. Johnson, K. & Raye, L. (1998). False memories and Confabulation, Trends in Cognitive Sciences 2(4), pp.137-144. Magnussen, S. & Helstrup, T. (2007). Everyday memory, East Sussex, Psychology Press. p.183 Martinez, M. (2010). Human memory: The basics, Phi Delta Kappan, 91(8), pp.62-65. Stephen, H. & Tom, S. (2011). Do humans use episodic memory to solve a what-where-when memory task? Animal Cognition, 14(1), pp.95-102. Read More