Dynamics of Crime and Delinquency - Thesis Example

DYNAMICS OF CRIME AND DELINQUENCY The research in criminology is critical in solving the various cases of such crimes in the society. The most important remedial measure towards reducing cases of criminal activities and their undesirable outcome significantly rely on determining the cause effect relationship. Various theories of crime have ben advanced but it is important to critically discus one of them to find out the forces behind such behavior and character development. Search for supportive facts are important to validate findings and boost the reliability of the arguments that would be brought forward to crime. It is therefore critical that criminology as a social issue is given multidimensional approach that will consider various observed behaviors. The social environment is significant in influencing the behavior and conduct of individuals and this explain crime rate differences across gender. While studying the crime theory, it would be important to highlight such social parameters that influence behavior outcomes in people. In this case strain theory would serve as an important theory to unveil the causes of crime in the society. Introduction In various disciplines there are theories that explain a given phenomenon and criminology is not exceptional. Many scholars and researchers have diverse definition of theory but the common denominator is the aggregate application in explain any observed phenomenon in the society. Theory is generally a set of principles that are devised to explain a group of facts. It emphasizes proof of ideas behind principles that have repeatedly been tested and widely accepted as responsible for a given phenomenon. In regard to strain theory, it explains the factors that push an individual to develop criminal behavior in the society (Agnew, 2006). Although each man is born free, the emerging character is shaped by many external environment factors and this serves even crime mind development. Criminological theory plays a central role as far as understanding of crime is concerned. Past research indicates that criminology theory explains the forces behind emotional and psychological transformation that shapes a criminal mind. There are incidences across the world where people commit outrageous crimes that one can never imagine of. The mitigation measures towards reoccurrence of such criminal acts require understanding of theory of criminology. Development of theory constitutes critical analysis of a given phenomenon by establishing the variables and their relationship. Such relationship among variables must be taken through a series of tests to gain general acceptance as valid and reliable in the real life experiences in the society. Criminology theory has equally been subjected to extensive fact finding debate and variables involved. These variables are taken through rigorous tests in discussion and experiments to test and prove hypothesis. The findings are central in establishment of most appropriate resolution approach from the source rather than the individual. In respect of strain theory, various social variables are aggregated to establish a model in support of an individual’s involvement in crime. Over the decades, criminology theory has evolved out of the emerging criminal behaviors that need to be studied and understood in depths. For instance, there are criminal records that illustrate high level of executionary strategies with minimal chances to be traced and this call for investigation and adjustment towards the existing theories (Einstadter & Henry, 2006). The dynamic political, economic and spiritual concerns of the society explain the changes in study of criminology. Strain theory had faded away and was nearly done away with until recently when it was given a new life in response to the recent developments in criminology. One of the scholars that have been at the forefront of renewing the life of criminology and strain theory in particular is Robert Agnew. In this criminal theoretical framework, definitions on measurements of strain, the major types of strain, the links between strain and crime, coping strategies to strain, the determinants of delinquent or nondelinquent behavior, and policy recommendations have been made. Strain theory has also been important in explaining the crime differences in regard to groups, for instance man versus women crime rates. Although the original strain theory was a work of Durkheim and Merton which was also derived from the theory of anomie, Robert Agnew improved it to fit into the contemporary society characterized by multiple cases of crime. The initial focus of strain theory was on decrease of societal and the result the resultant strain on an individual. Part of it also focused on cultural imbalance that exists between goal and the norms of the individuals of the larger society. Anomie is therefore put into two levels. One aspect of it which is also known as macroside explains the failure of society to set limits on goals and control individual behaviors (Siegel, 2012). On the other hand, strain theory which is also referred to as microside emphasizes reasons behind higher probability of likelihood to deviate as a result of societal breakdown. It is therefore evident that revolution of strain theory is a development of decreased regulations of the society which creates room for increased pressure to commit deviant acts. Central arguments on strain theory It is imperative that central arguments of strain theory are taken through rigorous investigation to establish its relevance to the contemporary society and study of criminology. The theory has undergone significant evolution as a result of further investigation and recommendations by various scholars. Agnew attempt to address the similarities between the two levels of anomie and regulation theory but emphasizes the idea that the two should be separated. The argument is that the micro level and control theory differ on the ground of social relations each of the stress and the motivation behind their respective development. As Britt & Gottfredson (2003),puts it, control theory focuses on the idea that societal breakdown set one free to commit crime while strain theory works on the premise that pressure exerted by the society on an individual pushes one to commit crime. The central argument of strain theory is that individual deviant act is caused by negative treatment from others, and this translates into anger and frustration. Strain theory was revised by Robert Agnew out of criticism that was developed from the original theory. For instance, the original strain theory explained that aspirational increase and decrease in individual achievement’s expectation is responsible for the observed increase in delinquency. The original version of the theory also concentrated in associating delinquency with lower social class against the reality of middle and upper class involvement. There is also evident neglect of other variables that are important to this theory including aspect of quality of family relationships and relative abandonment of crime as one approaches the late phases of adolescence. Revised strain theory explains that individual goals are important in line with position in the social class, and future expectations rather than possession of money. The general concept in the most recent strain theory emphasizes that people are easily absorbed into crime when they upset as a result of bad treatment by members of the society (Thornberry, 2004). The general strain theory therefore highlights the methods of measuring strain, the various types of strains, the link existing between crime and strain and the overall policy recommendations that are based on the theory. These factors provide an important basis for which the strain theory is studied in respect to crime rate management. This theory gives a way of measuring strain in a person which basically constitutes subjective approach and objective view. The former is used in direct questioning of an individual whether they dislike the way they feel treated by the society. The later involves asking individuals their views on predetermined causes of strain. This is one of the strength aspects of strain theory as far as criminology understanding is concerned. The objective approach has been useful in carrying out research on the strain theory since it encompasses relationship with friends, family members and the community in general. Despite the significant strength of this theory, it presents challenges in the form of numerous procedures that need to be followed for effective measurement of the strain responsible for any given criminal behavior. It requires enlisting of negative circumstances that leads to a particular strain (Vito & Maahs, 2012). This is particularly challenging in respect of the differences in strain experiences across the population. There is also the burden of objective identification of the situations and variables that will explain reaction of an individual towards a specific strain. It is important to note that attaining an effective strain measure requires the cumulative impacts of observed negative relations of the parties concerned. Besides consideration of positive relations that may exist and produce lessening effect on individual’s experience with the strain, there is need to consider other factors such as magnitude, duration, and clustering of negative events. The strain theory breaks down into three major types of strains which include failure to achieve positively valued goals, the presentation of negative stimuli and the loss of positive stimuli. Past literature indicates that failure by an individual to attain positively valued goals leads to development of a strain. The goals of the society for which each member strives to achieve are in three forms. They include money which becomes a strain when one fails to acquire it through legitimate means. Researchers indicates that desire to have a lot of money explains the emergence of increased delinquents behavior. Status and respect is another aspect of positively valued goals that is critical when it comes to discussing strains theory. It focuses much on masculinity which is considered as a contributing factor to crime (Entorf, Entorf-Spengler & Spengler,2002). Although there are different cultures, masculinity is a common denominator and is always displayed by some individuals through criminal acts. The power of oneself is another important goal of value in the society and this captures the adolescents and lower class in within the societal strata. Attempt by this age group and social class to break away from what they considered restricted control by other people and become independent in decision making leads to delinquency and crime. The various goals of value in the society turn to be strains in the event that the individuals experience some disjunctions in their life. For instance, aspirations and expectations disjunction may drive one into crime towards compensating for the failure. These goals are culturally and socially considered to be of high value but cannot be attained by everybody. The ensuing failure of the individuals to attain such desirable goals through legitimate means results into frustration and disappointment. This theory has faced significant criticism on the basis of omitting the middle class crime and its emphasis on monetary goals and social class as the main barrier with evident lack of explanation as to why some amounts to deviant behavior. Past literature indicates that this strain theory traditional view is not appropriate in application to criminality as compared to other theories like differential association theory hence citation of other strain sources that are applicable to the individual’s broader aspect of life. Expectations versus actual achievements disjoint also amounts to strain. I this case, the strain increase in the event that the actual achievement is below par in respect to individual’s expectation. The disjoint between actual outcome and the perceived just level of what one deserves also amounts to strain (Vito & Maahs, 2012). When one engages into any activity, there is a certain level of approximated fair outcome and failure to achieve this raises suspicion and consequent strain. In this case, an individual estimates the expected outcome that would be fair in regard to the input invested towards an action. In the event that the outcome seems unfair, room is created for comparison with other person which ends up creating a strain. Agnew (2006) continued investigation establishes that positive stimuli removal may also result into strain. For instance, such loss may be in form of death of a loved one, broken romantic of friendship relationship, or loss of a valued item through theft. An individual may become delinquent while attempting to retrieve lost items to seek revenge against one of the parties to the broken relationship and this amount to criminal strain. Despite having been largely left out of the criminology, research indicates that this type of strain is common among the adolescents in which they exhibit pain-avoidance conduct. Such experiences that may push an individual especially adolescent to become a victim of this strain include an abusive childhood, parental neglect among other socio-economic challenges that are punitive physically and emotionally. Criminal justice policy The link between crime and strain can be derived from factors like outside environment which causes several negative feelings on an individual. Anger is noted as being the most sensitive feeling that initiates crime in an individual. This circumstance easily arises when one blames his personal failures in regard to relationships and undesirable conditions on others. Anger initiates the desire to seek revenge and in some instances make one to justify deviant act. It is worth to note that individuals who are exposed to repetitive strain are vulnerable to criminal acts or delinquency (Thornberry, 2004). This results from the exhausted strain’s coping strategy which pushes the negative relations to the limit facilitating hostility and aggression in an individual with volatile negative emotional arousal. Strain theory gives other coping strategies against strains other than involvement in crime. These include Cognitive, emotional, and behavioral coping strategies that can be used to neutralize the amount of strain in an individual’s life. Cognitive coping approach helps one to reduce perceived importance of a specific goal which reduces impacts of failure to achieve it and vice versa. Behavioral coping strategy involves active seeking of positive stimuli for instance where one nondelinquently seek revenge. Emotional coping strategy is also effective as far as involvement in deviant acts is concerned (Agnew, 2006). In this case, the individual strives to dispose negative feelings instead of attempting to alter the circumstance itself. This can be achieved through relation or physical exercise that engages the mind in more constructive thoughts. Strain theory explores the fact that several factors dictate the available choices available to an individual. In this case, if the individual had set high targets with limited alternative goals to resort to then the person is more vulnerable to criminal act. It is therefore important for an individual to access social support in order to limit the probability of engaging in delinquent activities. The society therefore determines which available options of cognitively minimizing crime there are to the individuals. These factors will define if a specific strain will amount to a coping strategy of delinquent or nondelinquent type. Strain theory puts it clear that individual delinquency disposition regulates the coping strategies available for choice by the individual (Agnew, 2006). Past reinforcement of such criminal acts can significantly influence the decision of an individual to commit another crime. Strain theory has been instrumental in explaining the differences in criminal rate and nature between males and females. There is a comparatively high crime rate among male than female as explained by strain theory. This gender based difference in criminal involvement is based on the perception of a strain and subsequent response to the strain. The reason behind male vulnerability to respond to strain with a crime is based on the more confidence and self-esteem space. This provides a conducive circumstance of committing crime and employment of escape and avoidance tactics to relieve oneself of the strain. This is not the same case with female who lack the mentioned avenue to commit crime hence there observed limited engagement in deviant acts. Scholarly research on strain theory also reveals that male is more exposed to crime due to lower social control, and socialization in larger groups that is characterized by peer hierarchy. The female are on the contrary always socialize in small and close bond groups hence less responsive to the strains by crime. Strain theory also provides further explanation as to why female are also [participants in criminal acts. It bases its findings on the premise of type of strains experienced by the female (Agnew, 2006). With reference to goal blockade, socio-economic and political discrimination and frustrated interpersonal relations in an attempt to attain monetary goals exposes women to strain. Being the target to the most common negative stimuli like, sex, emotional, and physical abuse, they are likely to respond to the strains through criminal acts. It is common to find that women are accused of crimes mainly related to reaction against gender based violence, neglect by the parents or husband, inability to get money for personal needs and loneliness. Critical study of general strain theory has gained much acknowledgement in criminology scenes and initiated a renewed interest towards further inquiry into the effect of strain on crime. Since the theory is new and broad in its scope, there is limited data to establish strong argument towards its absolute application. It broader size in terms of scopes requires that tests are done on fragmented parts which are rather hectic. It is also worth noting that strain theory is not fully developed to be an absolute alternative to other criminology theories (Walklate, 2007). This is due to its limited extension into the macro social aspect of the world and its failure to enlist the influence of non-social related strain. It therefore still remains as a basic foundation for which further research is to be developed. This theory presents some knowledge gaps as far as area of coverage is concerned in the context of criminology. For instance, it fails to determine the amount of strain and its type, the mode and reasons of coping distinctively across the population. Policy Recommendations The study of strain theory is critical in improving the criminal justice system and general social approach of limiting cases of crime. This theory is applicable in various aspects of delinquency and therefore useful in designing programmes that prevents crime. There has been a proposed application of different crime reduction programs in respect of strain theory which have registered success upon implementation. It is therefore important that further policy recommendations are carried out to improve the efforts towards crime reduction in the society (Schneider, 2006). Such program must focus on the main root of strain theory which emphasizes negative treatment given to individuals by members of the community. The most important policy that would yield desirable outcome to this effect includes designing family based programmes. These targets to counsel the society on how to solve conflicts amicably and the parents are trained on the appropriate and constructive way of disciplining the children. This will significantly reduce the level of negative emotions that arises from family generated conflicts thereby reducing the magnitude of strain among people. The major source of strain for the adolescents is school. This means that there is need to develop school based programmes which would ease relationship among learners and their teachers. These programmes would also contribute towards improved performance which is a sensitive strain to the adolescents. It would equally be advisable to come up with peer based programs that would diffuse the strain adolescents are exposed to while interacting with peers (Vito & Maahs, 2012). This is because research has established that when the peers are delinquent for instance abusive to others and bullies to fellow peers, the relationship can negative thereby leading to strain. Such programmes need to be concentrated in schools where it will have more impact on the higher number of adolescents. The reality is that it is not possible to attain 100% prevention of crime through the strains avoidance. This means that alternative measures are required in place to address coping strategies. This will entail, guidance and counseling programmes that would help people to overcome some of their Behavioral, emotional, and cognitive inadequacies (Franzese, et al.2006). Other measures would include teaching people how to cope without the support of other. This may take the form of training the people to be assertive rather than aggressive as a way of reducing the effect of strain on their behaviors. An example of such case would be anger control counseling units that guide people on how to manage emotion. It is also important that in the prisons, programs are structured to be more of rehabilitate rather than punitive. This would significantly be encouraging help reform individuals to be law abiding members of the society. The judicial system need to work together with psychologist specialists to establish reasons behind the action of a given convict so as to generate a way of dealing with others. There is need to increase funding by the judicial system towards determination of cause effect of various strains in criminal scenes and during trial of the accused. This would also help in provision of data for future improvement on the assigned criminal theory. Conclusion Strain theory offers a better understanding of how criminal activities arise and this has served a useful role is establishment of a more proactive justice system. The adolescents are the budding members of community and highly vulnerable to engaging in crime and this requires more attention towards helping them out of crime. There still remains information gap in strain theory that requires further investigation with potential expansion and support of strain theory towards mitigating crime in the society. References Agnew, R. (2006). Pressured into crime: An overview of general strain theory. Los Angeles, Calif: Roxbury Pub. Britt, C. L., & Gottfredson, M. R. (2003). Control theories of crime and delinquency. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. Einstadter, W. J., & Henry, S. (2006). Criminological theory: An analysis of its underlying assumptions. Lanham, Md: Rowman & Littlefield. Entorf, H., Entorf-Spengler, ., & Spengler, H. (2002). Crime in Europe: Causes and consequences ; with 80 tables. Berlin [u.a.: Springer. Franzese, R. J., Covey, H. C., Menard, S. W., & Covey, H. C. (2006). Youth gangs. Springfield, Ill: Charles C Thomas. Schneider, S. (2006). Refocusing crime prevention: Collective action and the quest for community. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Siegel, L. J. (2012). Criminology. Belmont: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning. Thornberry, T. P. (2004). Developmental theories of crime and delinquency. New Brunswick, N.J: Transaction. Vito, G. F., & Maahs, J. R. (2012). Criminology: Theory, research, and policy. Sudbury, Mass: Jones & Bartlett Learning. Walklate, S. (2007). Understanding criminology: Current theoretical debates. Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill/Open University Press. Read More