The Role of Nonverbal Communication - Research Paper Example

1. Introduction 1 Background Body language or non-verbal communication (NVC) has been a common practice from the time human beings have existed. Human relationships have been built on non-verbal communication although its awareness and observation are recent phenomenon. Interpersonal communication and effective human communication constitutes of verbal and non-verbal behaviors. Semantics or the science of language divides the two aspects of human communication but effective communication is a combination of verbal and non-verbal behavior. Communication is a structured dynamic process relating to the interconnectedness of living systems, according to Birdwhistell (cited by Jolly, 2000). Non-verbal forms of behavior are expressive while verbal behavior is indicative. In a normal communication between two people, only one-third of the meaning is transmitted on a verbal level while two-thirds on a non-verbal level (Sielski, 1979). 1.2 Motivation for research Nonverbal communication provides an insight into why people behave as they do. Such insight and information is invaluable for professions such as counseling because body language can actually contradict verbal communication (Sielski, 1979) and non-verbal cues are processed differently in different cultures (Yammiyavar, Clemmensen & Kumar, 2008). Terms ‘body language’ and NVC are interchangeably used throughout the paper. This subject has been of interest to evaluate how an understanding of body language can actually influence counseling. I have gone through some literature on body language and counseling and since I intend to enter the counseling profession, I felt motivated to go deeper. With the aim to evaluate the impact of culture on non-verbal communication, the objective of the paper is: To evaluate the contribution of body language as a means of communication To gain insight into non-verbal communication used by people from different cultures. To evaluate the importance of nonverbal communication in counseling 1.3 Organization of the paper This research paper is purely based on textual analysis. Based on the literature review, the framework for the research would be formed. The methodology would be briefly discussed and then the findings would be analyzed based on theoretical framework. 2. Literature Review 2.1 Body language as a means of communication Body language as a means of communication has been of immense interest to many researchers and psychologists. It is considered to be an outward reflection of a person’s emotional state, according to Yammiyavar, Clemmensen and Kumar (2008). It is a study of the mixture of all body movements that could be involuntary or deliberate; it could also apply only in one culture or across all cultures. Non-verbal communication refers to all stimuli generated for the purpose of communication. Various body movements such as facial expression, gestures, eye contact, tactile communication and paralanguage have been identified as principle non-verbal cues. Areas of study in non-verbal cues include paralinguistics, proxemics, artifactis, chronemics and kinesics (Yammiyavar, Clemmensen & Kumar, 2008). Paralinguistics deals with vocal cues such as pitch, tone, intonation and also sounds from the throat that accompany speech like hmmm and aaaaaa. Proxemis is the study of space elements and deals with the space between people and objects. Artifactis is the non-verbal message sent out by personal messages such as dress and fashion accessories. Chronemics is the study of time and is relative to the people involved. This includes the silences, pauses and he time lag between responses. Kinesics deals with gestures, postures, head-nods and leg movement. However, to understand body language, cultural and environmental differences have to be considered (Sielski, 1979). Gestures are sub-categorized as emblems, illustrators, regulators and adapters (Yammiyavar, Clemmensen & Kumar, 2008). Emblems pertain to culture-specific signs such as nods while illustrators emphasize actions like banging the table during the conversation. Adapters are unconscious actions like shaking the leg rhythmically or snapping the knuckles. Regulators control the flow of conversation like shaking the head up and down in agreement with what is being said. Information transmitted through non-verbal cues are processed differently in different cultures. In the West, pictures, sound and feelings cognate information while in the East, smell and taste also matter. People from eastern cultures exhibit more non-verbal cues than from the western cultures. Emblems, adapters and illustrator gestures are significantly different across culture but regulators are used in a similar way across cultures. 2.2 Importance of nonverbal communication in counseling Counseling is a non-judgmental process during which a client facing developmental/adjustment or situational, is empowered to gain awareness of himself and the situation (StressMG, n.d.). He is assisted in making decisions by another person (counselor) through their relationship. Counseling involves befriending, listening, helping and empowering. To be able to provide this service, non-verbal communication has been recognized as an important determinant of fast and right identification of the problem of the client. In a counseling setting, the counselor derives useful messages through NVC. In fact, counseling is dependent upon non-verbal communication. Such communication complements and supplements and at times, even displaces verbal exchanges (Sielski, 1979). Hence it becomes very essential for a counselor to have a thorough understanding of the messages transmitted through body language. They need to be able to send and receive messages clearly. NVC is a series of cues that are encoded by the sender and have to be decoded by the receiver. The effectiveness of communication depends on the encoding decoding of these messages (Gabbot & Hogg, 2000). However, body motions are not random but have to be learned like a language. Human beings respond to gestures with extreme alertness (Sielski, 1979). Communication is an integrated system and must be analyzed as a whole. Counselors recognize that the movements of an individual provide clues to his character, his emotions and reactions. Non-verbal messages are communicated through the person as well as the setting. The setting includes the physical appearance, the dress, color, fashion, lighting arrangements, facial expression, and silence, quality of voice, tone, and eye contact. Body language has a significant impact on others’ perceptions even before we speak. Leaning towards the other person while listening, nodding to show interest or maintaining eye contact are some of the gestures that can make a client comfortable during counseling. If the client feels uncomfortable with direct eye contact, the counselor can intermittently focus in areas around the eyes. Each of these provides insight into the message that the client may want to convey. Schlesinger (1978) discusses the major controversies in the literature on NVC and then suggests a model for interpreting non-verbal behavior in an actual counseling setting. The author contends that counselors might tend to manipulate a model or they could ignore some important cues. The author found that some studies only consider kinesics while others include paralinguistics and proxemis. Some consider NVC a learned phenomenon and a mechanism of acculturation. Others believe it to be innate and it is a reliable source of information when words fail. Some focus on the head and face movements while some feel the “gaze” itself is sufficient to understand the communication. Various factors need to be considered when interpreting NVC such as the clients involved, their age and sex, their interrelationships, the setting of the interaction, the familial and the ethnic differences, to name a few. Schlesinger suggests a holistic and interactive model where all situations are filmed and then the most important clues drawn by an experienced counselor and not untrained observers. The counselor would be the best judge depending on the factors as above. The author does not give any concrete model as such and leaves it to the counselor to decide. Norman (1982) discusses the implications for and use by the counselors. Norma first gives the definition and findings of others on NVC and then individually discusses the messages that can be read through facial expression or nonverbal vocal behavior. Norman also gives detailed explanations of the kinesics or the body posture and the body language, in addition to visual cues. Norman elaborates the observations that the counselor can make and these could help the counselor speed up the identification of the real problem. However, counselors could become overly concerned with NVC even though there is much that they can learn of the client through NVC. Warfield (2001) cites a few gestures and interprets their possible meanings, which reveal the importance of NVC in counseling. Clenched hands demonstrate frustration and the higher the hands go, the more frustrated the person is. When people want to be defensive, they cross their arms and legs in protection; people often rub their eyes while lying. Gender differences have been observed even in gestures like rubbing the eyes. A woman would look up at the ceiling while rubbing the eyes lightly whereas a man would rub it vigorously and look down at the floor. Fear of being caught telling a lie, makes people scratch their back five times. Listening with hand on the cheek and thumb under the chin conveys apprehensions or doubts on the words spoken. Women nod their head even while listening while men nod only in agreement. Sucking thumb or biting nails denote stress, insecurity and lack of confidence. Crossed legs and arms denote withdrawal and resistance. Clients normally express anger and frustration and may resort to unexpected behavior. They may even yell or throw things about. At such moments the client is in no position to listen to verbal messages and the counselor has to use body language. To make the client comfortable, the counselor must maintain an open posture (arms uncrossed and at the sides), face the person directly and make an eye contact. A teacher could bring instantaneous changes in a student with body language. The teachers watched the student’s work with a smile. Beaming, gazing, nodding and applause are all what were needed to transform a fourth-grader (Hurley, 2004). Similarly, a counselor can use the body language to initiate the thought process in a client as they normally lack in love. To maintain a balance and observe the relevant behavior, to work effectively as counselors requires training in human development, human behavior and the counseling process (StressMG, n.d). The training and education would depend on the level of work that the counselor is engaged in. Based on their level of training they could be non-professional counselors, paraprofessional counselors and professional counselors. Counseling does require the incumbent to possess some innate qualities like positive energy, intellectual capability, a sense of purpose, the ability to observe and make judgments, an ability to communicate and empathize. The counselor should also have an awareness and respect for the cultural differences, a sense of humor and respect for confidentiality. There are certain codes of ethics that the counselors need to know and adhere to. Along with this, the counselors need training in skillful listening, providing information, giving advice, and exhibiting empathetic understanding. 2.3 Impact of culture on nonverbal communication Multi-cultural awareness is a cognitive and affective process that gives rise to a positive attitude towards cultural differences (Collins & Pieterse, 2007). Skilled counselors should be aware of the different cultural traits and how the individual client would perceive the counseling session. According to the authors, training in multicultural setting to counselors is insufficient. Body language is a crucial communication tool and its impact must be known to the counselor. Even before one speaks up, body language can impact the others’ perception. A client may not even be aware of the need for counseling when he comes to a counselor. Judging by the body movements, the counselor must be able to comprehend the resistance or reluctance of the client to open up (Laungani, 2004). To have the right understanding of the gestures and the body movement would require the counselor would require education and training. Counselors need to know the language that the body speaks. The authors Yammiyavar, Clemmensen and Kumar (2008) found through a study that non-verbal communication can be relied upon for additional interpretation in cross-cultural situations like cultural unfamiliarity and language accents. This study was based on the analysis of non-verbal kinesics cues of users in videos through a content analysis software tool. The study revealed that rich amount of body movements does take place in an interactive cross-cultural situation. An experienced therapist, according to Laungani (2004) would rely more on gestures and body movements than on the words of the client. A therapist needs to be trained in understanding the client’s subjective world as this would enable him to offer specific guidance. Without training, the client and the counselor would be at cultural crossroads with no chances of meeting at all. Chances of misinterpretation of the signals in nonverbal communication are possible because of cultural differences (Gabbot & Hogg, 2000). Culture is an important variable that impacts the nature of NVC. For instance, lack of eye contact could mean lack of interest in one culture while in another it could mean embarrassment. Hence body movements have to be well understood by the counselor. In a multi-cultural setting, the counselor should maintain a state of not knowing, so that he is open at all times to fresh understanding (Moodley, 2007). Clients from different culture would present their distress in a different manner. A particular behavior should not be misinterpreted as a psychological problem in the client. If the counselor is not competent for multi-cultural setting, he/she would not be able to differentiate between normative religious practice and aberrant behavior (Schnall, 2006). The counselors work with the client should not be just a therapy but a self-reflexive practice that examines its own prejudices and will power (Moodley, 2007). This would demonstrate that they are willing to accept the challenge. 2.4 Summary of literature review Body language as a means of communication has been established and its importance is heightened in cross-cultural settings. Although researchers have suggested several non-verbal cues, kinesics or the use of gestures, posture, legs and hand movements are the most important. Counseling as a profession does require an understanding of the culture influences in nonverbal communication. While counselors must have innate attributes that the profession demands, knowledge of the cultural implications has to be learned. Based on the literature review, the findings would be focused on the kinesics in a multi-cultural setting. The findings are based on textual analysis where the gestures and culture would be analyzed in the context of the literature. 3. Methodology Any research is based on facts and figures and is essentially a process of inquiry. There is no predefined research method and it is based on the purpose of the research, the sample size, the area of research and the time and budget at hand. Accordingly, it can be qualitative or quantitative in nature. Because of the time and budget constraints, it is not possible to collect primary data for the study. The research is hence based on textual analysis where the kinesics in different culture is related to the profession of counseling. 4. Findings and discussion Cultural diversity is increasing and every family, every society, every community and even every country has its own culture. Hofstede is of the firm belief that national culture has more influence on human behavior than organizational or any other culture. Cultural beliefs are deeply embedded in the system and one respond’s based on these cultural influences. Anthropologists find that an Arab, an Englishman, an American white and a black American do not move in the same way (Sielski, 1979). Arabs tend to cling together and they have no conception of privacy. To them pushing or shoving women in public is normal but to an American, the body is sacred and private. Some behaviors across cultures are universal while others are not. Smiling, for instance, denotes happiness in all cultures (Gabbot & Hogg, 2000). However, emotional expressions reveal wide variations between cultures. Japanese would never reveal their negative emotions and hence they use a smile to mask their negative emotions. Such differences, if not known to the counselor, could change the perception and the impact of communication would be reduced. It could be interpreted as aberrant behavior as per Schnall. In the counseling profession, awareness of the potential for cultural misinterpretation is essential. Jews have a very orthodox view of approaching a counselor. They are apprehensive unless they share the same religious beliefs and values (Schnall, 2006). There is a decline in religious beliefs due to which life in the West revolves around individualism, materialism, secularism, humanism empiricism and scientism. The counseling therapies hence, have to be based on this framework. To the orthodox Jews, seeking counseling itself is a personal weakness. They live under the impression that Jews are high achievers and do not require any counseling. Moreover, the therapists and counselors have university education, which contributes to another problem. Human beings react more to what they think the other person means than to what they hear. An appreciation with a smile would be acceptable but the same words if spoken with a frown would only fetch a frown in return. People go by the body language than by the words spoken and hence a counselor should know the language that the body speaks (Laungani, 2004). A client comes to a counselor as he is need of help and needs to release emotions. According to Jossey-Bass (1982), making an eye contact is of utmost importance but orthodox Jews would avoid making eye contacts, specially the women (Schnall, 2006). A counselor must be aware of such values prevalent in the society and accordingly use some other means to establish communication. The counselor should not misunderstand the resistance of the Jewish clients as paranoia, contends Schnall. Maintaining a comfortable facial expression can make the client feel at ease and less nervous. Having an attentive posture and not crossing legs while sitting motivates the client to relax (Jossey-Bass (1982). The counselor needs to intermittently nod at what the client conveys either through verbal or non-verbal communication. Reflective listening is considered essential as also organizing the person’s thoughts helps calm the situation and the person. However, all of these gestures would be interpreted differently by people from different cultures. Book of Body Language (n.d.) states that facial expressions and smile mean the same to most people from most cultures but Inter-cultural Business relations (n.d.) finds that the intensity of emotions such as anger, sorrow disgust, may vary from culture to culture. Moreover, Asian cultures have a tendency to suppress facial expressions as far as possible. The Arab culture exaggerates grief while the Americans hide grief. Too much smiling is a sign of shallowness. While some cultures believe that eye contact is a mark of disrespect (Japan, Africa), others such as American emphasize on eye contact. Arabic cultures too insist on prolonged eye contact and not maintaining eye contact denotes the person is not trustworthy. Within the USA also there are several sub-cultures as the nation is home to people from many ethnic cultures. As far as hand shaking is concerned, Islamic and Indian cultures consider touch with the left hand an insult. Handshaking as a form of greeting is common in USA but African Americans do not like to be touched on the head. Bowing down is not done in the US but it shows rank in Japan. Greetings differ across culture. For instance, in New Zealand, people press their heads and noses together. They are actually trying to inhale the other person which gives a lot of information about them. The head is not to be touched in South East Asian cultures while the Japanese and Koreans consider a smile to be frivolous. 5. Conclusion Body language or non-verbal gestures serve as valuable communication tools. It is basically an external reflection of a person’s emotional state. At times, body language speaks more than the verbal words spoken. Many times body language contradicts the words spoken. An appreciation with a smile is acceptable but not with a frown. Body language has the potential to impact others’ perception even before one speaks up. While non-verbal cues can be derived from many sources such as pitch, tone, space between two verbal exchanges, dress and the environment, kinesics or gestures of hands, legs, facial expression have been found to most communicative. This is because rich amount of movement takes place in an interactive setting. However, cultural diversity has become common in any profession or skill. Hence, an understanding of the body language in different culture can save a situation, a mishap or misunderstanding. Therapists, in fact, rely more on body language than on words spoken. Some behaviors across cultures are universal while others are not. Smile, for instance, denotes happiness in all cultures but at the end of a successful meeting, the Japanese would consider it a sign of frivolity. This could be misunderstood by others unless they are aware of the Japanese culture. An understanding of cultural impact on non-verbal communication is essential in any profession. Counselors, in particular, need to be trained in understanding their clients who may come from different cultural backgrounds. To assist the client, the counselor needs to understand the expression of emotions relevant to that particular culture. Culture is an important variable in non-verbal communication. Body language as a communication tool has existed ever since the human beings have existed but its importance as a communicative tool in cross-cultural setting has gained recognition only recently. References Book of Body Language (n.d.). Cultural Differences. Chapter 5. Retrieved September 28, 2010 from http://westsidetoastmasters.com/resources/book_of_body_language/chap5.html Collins, N.M., & Pieterse, A.L. (2007). Critical incident analysis based training: An approach for developing active radical/cultural awareness. Journal of counseling & development, 85, 14-23. Gabbot, M., & Hogg, G. (2000). An empirical investigation of the impact of non-verbal communication on service evaluation. European Journal of Marketing, 34 (3/4), 384-398 Hurley, L. (2004), Teacher talk: nonverbal positive comments. Reading Today 22.2 (Oct-Nov 2004): 10(1). Thomson Gale. Inter-cultural Business relations (n.d.). Non-Verbal Commuication Modes. Retrieved September 28, 2010 from http://www.andrews.edu/~tidwell/bsad560/NonVerbal.html Jolly, S. (2000). Understanding body language: Birdwhistells theory of kinesics. Corporate Communications: An International Journal. 5 (3), 133-139 Laungani,P. (2004). Counselling and therapy in a multi-cultural setting. Counselling Psychology Quartrly, 17, 195-207 Moodley, R. (2007). (Re)placing multicultural in counseling and psychotherapy, British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 35, 1- 22. 4. Norman, S.L. (1982). Nonverbal Communication: Implications for and Use by Counselors. Individual Psychology: The Journal of Adlerian Theory, Research & Practice. 38 (4), 353-359 Schlesinger, J.S. (1978). Nonverbal Communication: Information and Application for Counselors. Personnel & Guidance Journal. 57 (4), 183-187 Schnall, E. (2006). Multicultural counseling and the orthodox Jew. Journal of Counseling & Development, 84, 276-182 Sielski, L.M. (1979). Understanding the body language. Personnel and Guidance Journal. 238-242 StressMG. (n.d). SECTION 4: AN INTRODUCTION TO COUNSELING AND CRISIS INTERVENTION. Retrieved September 28, 2010 from http://www.paho.org/english/ped/stressmgn4.pdf Warfield, A. (2001). Do You Speak Body Language?(nonverbal communication for customer service). Training & Development 55.4 (April 2001): 60. Thomson Gale. Yammiyavar, P., Clemmensen, T., & Kumar, J. (2008). Influence of Cultural Background on Non-verbal Communication in a Usability Testing Situation. International Journal of Design. 2 (2), 31-40 Read More