Perceptions on Water and Sanitation Services in Durban Metro - Essay Example

RESEARCH PROPOSAL AN ASSESSMENT OF PERCEPTIONS ON WATER AND SANITATION SERVICES IN DURBAN METRO: CASE STUDY: KWAMASHU s Reference No. for the Proposal: The name of the Agency to which the proposal is being submitted: The proposed starting date: Budget period of the proposal: The total funds requested: The name and address of the University’s unit submitting the proposal: Date submitted: Whether the proposal is for a new or continuing project: New Project. Any other agencies to which the proposal is being submitted: (Signatures): Principal Investigator: (Student) Department Head: Official representing the University: ABSTRACT An assessment of perceptions on water and sanitation services in Durban metro: KwaMashu is the topic of research. In this newly constructed township north of Durban, thousands of Africans were sent, after their shack settlements on the outskirts of Durban were removed. They were used as cheap labour on a seasonal basis. KwaMashu was a bleak place, far from the city center of Durban. Management of urban water supply and sanitation services globally, in Africa, and more specifically in South Africa, and Durban will be studied. The various agencies essential for establishing sustainable water and sanitation systems will be considered. They include the municipality, the private sector, partnerships between agencies, community capital and community empowerment etc. The essential role of donor agencies like the World Bank, who have Africa’s development on their agenda, and how they can make a difference with their aid for the cause of the urban poor is studied. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Nos. Title page: 1 Abstract: 2 Table of contents: 3 Introduction: 4 Background, and Literature Review: 4 Relevant Institutional Resources: 11 Research Methodology: 13 Limitations of Research: 16 Conclusion: 16 List of References: 17 RESEARCH PROPOSAL WATER AND SANITATION SERVICES IN DURBAN METRO: CASE STUDY – KWAMASHU INTRODUCTION: In the developing world, more than a billion people lack safe drinking water, and more than three billion live without access to adequate sanitation systems necessary for reducing exposure to water-related diseases, according to Gleick (1998: 487, Water Policy). The failure of the international aid community, nations and local organizations to satisfy these basic human needs has led to substantial, unnecessary and preventable human suffering. New approaches to long-term water planning and management that incorporate principles of sustainability and equity are required, since the problems of ecological and human crises are likely to increase with growth in human population (p.571). Holistic environmental sanitation, according to Downs; Suffet (2002:3) has four main water-related aspects: water supply, rainwater drainage, solid waste disposal and excreta disposal. Sanitation, including water supply is a major part of the United Nation’s Agenda for sustainable development. New integrated solutions are called for to meet the challenges. My research proposal addresses perceptions of issues related to water and sanitation services in KwaMashu, a Durban metro. The main aim of the research would be to study the trends in water and sanitation services around the globe, in Africa, and particularly in South Africa, Durban and in KwaMashu. An assessment of current conditions, the financial aid plans of donor agencies, other institutional resources, partnerships between different agencies for sustainability and equity, identifying and empowering of community capital are all taken into consideration in an integrated approach for the provision of water and sanitation to the urban poor in KwaMashu. BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW: The term “water use” according to Gleick (1996: 83), encompasses many different things including withdrawal of water (filling and storing), gross water use (total required), and the consumptive use of water. In the world’s developing countries, lack of adequate safe water, pollution of aquatic environment, and the mismanagement of resources are still major causes of ill-health and mortality (Helmer 1999:15). Haines, Cassels (2004: 394) state that in September 2000, the United Nations Millenium Declaration endorsed by 189 countries, set out goals to be reached by 2015. The eight goals on development and poverty eradication are the Millennium Development Goals. The seventh goal tackles lack of access to clean water and environmental degradation. The goals can be attained only with the help of more resources and changes in policy (p.329). Sachs and McArthur (2005:349) state that the key lesson from the Millennium Project task forces is that sound, proven, cost-effective interventions exist in the form of technologies that can ameliorate and often eliminate the underlying causes of extreme poverty. Rheingans, et al (2006:39) explain that for good health, besides long-term infrastructure improvements towards better water quality, short term simple, low-cost, locally acceptable strategies must be employed, including house-hold water treatment, hygiene education, community mobilization, etc. Shared Water Vision for Africa 2025 has been defined as: An Africa where there is an equitable and sustainable use and management of water resources for poverty alleviation, socio-economic development, regional cooperation and the environment (U.N.Water Africa: The Africa Water Vision). According to WHO; UNICEF (2004) access to safe drinking water is estimated by the percentage of the population using improved drinking water sources such as: household connection, public standpipe, borehole, protected dug well, protected spring and rainwater collection. Unimproved sources would include: unprotected well, unprotected spring, rivers or ponds, vendor-provided water, and tanker truck water. Similarly, improved sanitation facilities would include connection to a public sewer, connection to a septic system, pour-flush latrine, simple pit latrine, ventilated improved pit latrine. Unimproved sanitation facilities are: public or shared latrine, open pit latrine, bucket latrine, etc (2004: 4). According to Pompeo (1999:158), sustainability is a very important criterion in all actions taken towards development and provision of facilities. The social aspect of sustainability can be developed along three lines: citizenship, democracy and culture. These three lines should be followed seeking participation as a result of information and communication. Hence community involvement is considered as an important criterion. Water and Sanitation in the World’s Cities: The United Nations Human Settlements Program (2003: 60) reports on work done by the World Health Organization (WHO), that estimates the burden of disease from water, sanitation and hygiene globally. For provision of water and sanitation, finance is not the main problem, as the users will pay for the facility. It is stated (p.102) that the main constraint is the existence of a local organization public, private-commercial, private non-profit, NGO, etc) that can develop the solutions that are most appropriate to that locality and inhabitants, build cost-efficiently and set up and manage a cost-recovery system so that users can and will pay. In urban areas, another problem is that the illegal status of many settlements may prevent public or private water and sanitation providers from operating in such settlements (p.104). The New Water Act 1998 sufficiently empowers urban activities to address the conservation of water. Supportive legal frameworks are in place to control and regulate the sector (Sibanda, 2002, p.5). The National Water Act 1998 of the Republic of South Africa discusses water management strategies and protection of water resources. Waste-water re-use: Bunting (2004: 51-75) states that it is seen in various geographical locations, some poor people depend both directly and indirectly on waste-water aquaculture for a significant part of their livelihood. However, due to various constraints, this source of livelihood is threatened. Policymakers need to support livelihood diversification, thereby lessening the vulnerability associated with this practise. The Trends for Management of Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Services in Africa: National water and sanitation reform programs in Ghana, Lisotho and South Africa have yielded lessons which are useful for policy makers around the world: significant poverty reduction can be achieved by clear legislation, strong political leadership, community empowerment and donor support (Liebenthal; Fox 2006:257-258). According to Sibanda (2002: 4), in order to better understand the issues involved in urban water and sanitation management the experiences gained by the city of Bulawayo in Zimbabwe, are shared. The government advocates: Full privatisation of water supply, and decentralization of water supplies to local levels of Government or communities. Integrated catchment management is also practised in the supply dams catchment. It is beneficial to research and understand the relationship between good land management, silt load into the dams, as well as the construction of small dams in upper catchments. It is important to have information on land usage and application within the catchment areas to effect proper catchment management. Integrated Water Resource Management: Water demand management, waste water re-use, and artificial re-charge of ground water form part of the integrated approach. The rising demands for water for irrigation, domestic consumption and industry, are leading to competition over the allocation. South Africa: South Africa is a water stressed country, hence any water and sanitation strategy needs to address water conservation and demand management issues together with sustainability, affordability, public health, poverty, and other issues (Buckley, C.A., 2004:1). According to the CIA Factbook, in the article on Durban by Marx and Charlton, in South Africa ruled by racial discrimination, prior to the early 1990s, access to the urban areas was restricted for the majority African population, and only those regarded as necessary to the labour needs of the white-owned economy were allowed access to the urban areas. Social and economic policies resulted in severe poverty and deprivation for most of the African population, and comparatively high living standards for the whites. To ensure sustainable water supply and sanitation services, Alaerts et al (1999: 301) state that a framework at local government and community level needs to be set out. The Department of Water Affairs and Forestry in South Africa is engaged in a nation-wide program of local government support for the development of basic water supply and sanitation services. Shack Settlements: Maylam (1983: 413) states that the plight of African urban squatters in South Africa has been the focus of public attention during the past few decades. Certain contradictions within the South African political economy and the tensions within the apartheid system created conditions for the growth of extensive shack settlements in and around Durban and other cities in the 1930s and 1940s. This was called as a “black belt.” KwaMashu: Durban’s employers required to have at hand a reservoir of cheap labour to draw upon to meet seasonal demands. In 1952 the decision was taken by the municipality to relocate the shack-dwellers to a new township to be built to the north of the city, which was called KwaMashu (p.413). Buthelezi (2005:188) states that KwaMashu is located between the third world rural area of Inanda and the metropolis first world city of Durban. It is a dormitory African township of about 100,000 persons most of whom are job seekers in Durban. By 1966, 82,000 people from Cato Manor (the main shack settlement) and about 13,000 from other shack settlements had been shifted to KwaMashu, which was a bleak, monotonous township far removed from the center of Durban. Residents had to pay high transport costs and were subject to a barrage of rules and regulations. More-over the housing back log had not been removed. Vast shack settlements are still growing on the periphery of Durban and other South African cities.(Maylam 1983: 425). It is a lack of sanitation and water supply facilities to the urban poor which poses the primary hazard to overall community public health ( Ludwig; Browder 1992:135) According to Mara (1999: 257), Simplified Sewerage was developed in Brazil in the early 1980s, and is the sanitation technology of first choice in high-density low-income peri-urban areas, with a reasonably reliable water supply, and can be adopted by others. Durban: Water Supply and Sanitation Services: Durban is located on the Eastern coast of South Africa, with both urban and rural areas. Buckley, C.A. (Ujang, et al: Eds.: 2004, p.1), has explained that in order to meet the goals set by South Africa towards water and sanitation, an innovative and flexible approach supported by research is required. Durban is considered as a leader in the provision of sustainable water and sanitation services. It has had a major influence in the development of South African policy, strategy and implementation guidelines for water and sanitation service delivery. According to Marx; Charlton (CIA Factbook: Urban Slum Reports: The Case of Durban, South Africa p.6), the definition of adequate housing provided in the National Housing Act 107 of 1997 is: “Permanent residential structures with secure tenure, ensuring internal and external privacy, and providing adequate protection against the elements; and with access to potable water, sanitary facilities and domestic energy supply (RSA 1997, 4). The KwaZulu-Natal Region has a great need for the provision of sanitation. The increasing urban and peri-urban population will require the extension of sewage reticulation, and an increase in sewage treatment capacity. The increased use and income from existing but under-utilized capacity will assist in financing the additional infrastructure in areas where it is needed (Sacks; Buckley 1998: 2). The level and technology of sanitation must be considered in conjunction with the level of water supply and the type of housing to be served. The initial emphasis is on the supply of basic services to the deprived (p1). The government provides a subsidy for the installation of basic services including water and sanitation. The provision of safe drinking water and healthy sanitation services are being achieved through a range of interventions and innovations. The city of Durban has gained an international reputation for innovation, coverage and efficient service delivery, with continued improvement in the service (Buckley, C.A., 2004, pp.1-2). A major impact on the population and housing profile of Durban is the recent migration of people from the rural to the urban regions, and the changes in local government demarcation. The Durban Metropolitan Municipality was formed in 1995. Durban Metro Water Services was created by amalgamating 43 separate water utilities and municipalities into one operational entity, to provide equal services to all citizens across the metro at the same tariff. The greater Durban metropolitan area is administered by the eThekwini Municipality boundary (Stats S.A., 2003b), (p.2). Linkage of water supply and sanitation services: A waterborne sanitation service can only operate efficiently if there is sufficient water available. Similarly, an on-site sanitation system needs to be able to cope with all the water used on the site (p.2). The levels of sanitation have to match the affordability of the user (both capital and maintenance), the geological conditions and the level of water services (Buckley, C.A. 2004: 4). Policy which was initiated by Durban is that each dwelling receives 200 litres per day of free water. Thereafter there is an increasing block tariff (p.3). Over the period 1995 to 2000, in the province as a whole, a positive impact is observed, on reducing poverty through recent infrastructure delivery in shelter, sanitation and energy (p.23). With the outward expansion of the municipal boundary of Durban, eThekwini Water Services has responded innovatively and flexibly, expanding the groundtank system and developing higher quality, ventilated improved diversionary pit latrines, for those not connected to the sewerage network. Recently eThekwini Water Services has entered various public-private partnerships. It works efficiently, with a firm approach to non-payment of bills and by replacing an aging sewerage network (Loftus, 2005: 25-26). Storm-water re-use: Niemczynowicz (1999: 3) states that a variety of new storm-water handling and treatment methods have been developed. They are based on small-scale, environmentally sound technologies that involve natural or constructed biological systems. RELEVANT INSTITUTIONAL RESOURCES: Donors: Recently donors have begun to merge their interest in private sector development with proverty reduction mandates. The World Bank and the Water and Sanitation Program (WSP) have led this process through a number of global initiatives, conferences and workshops. In the water and sanitation sector , WSP published guidelines for the development of pro-poor transactions relying on technical assistance, for sustainable results that can be replicated (Plummer, 2002: 109). Two important principles enunciated at the 1992 Dublin International Conference on Water and the Environment which have been adopted, stress on the economic value of water, and the value of participatory approach from users, planners and policy makers at all levels (Briscoe 1995:19). The World Bank: For improving performance in the water sector the bank uses the criteria of selectivity and good management. (Pitman, 2002: 32). There is a growing emphasis on integrating poverty and social development issues in the World Bank-financed water sector projects, particularly after adoption of the Bank’s 1993 Water Resources Management policy paper. The Bank has focussed more on community-driven approaches, distribution and equity (p.80). The International Monetary Fund, represented by Krueger (2003), is of the opinion that governments wherever possible should charge user fees to finance investment on reformation of water provision. A safety net to safeguard the interests of the poorest in society should be provided. Unicef and its partner Water Aid support the government in Mozambique, as in several other areas in Africa and other deprived areas all over the globe, to improve the provision of clean water and good quality sanitation in the country (UNICEF Web site). Other institutional resources: Private Sector Participation: According to McGranahan; Budds ( 2003: Introduction), under the right circumstances private sector participation can improve efficiency and increase the financial resources available for improving water and sanitation services. On the other hand, there is the danger that it may direct finances to urban centers and neighbourhoods that are already comparatively well-served, and lead to significant tariff increases. Public-Private Partnership (PPP): In the water and sanitation sector it may refer to contractual arrangements between public agency and private enterprise, wherein private companies assume greater responsibility/ risk especially through concession (McGranahan; Budds 2003: Introduction). Building on the assets of potential partners According to Plummer; Waddell (2002: 67), for achieving sustainable service improvements for the poor, the importance of integrated approaches to urban management and poverty reduction should be highlighted. For partnerships developed at the municipal level, the potential of each of the three organizational sectors: government, private sector and civil society should be taken into consideration for delivery of services in poor urban contexts. The important roles of external agents such as donors and specialist consultants should also be considered. The nature and diversity of municipalities in service delivery: Municipalities have powers of enforcement and taxation and important leadership powers through which they can convene various actors and build collective visions. On the other hand they are often burdened by bureaucratic procedures and political interference, and undermined by a lack of human and financial resources (Plummer; Waddell, 2002: 67). National Enterprises: There is a growing trend towards national private sector participation in municipal service delivery, state Plummer; Waddell (2002: 81). This participation arises when national enterprises are included in large consortiums as local partners. Consortium with international operators: In the delivery of municipal water and sanitation services, the most common involvement of national businesses is in consortia comprising international operators. Many international operators hold a great deal of value upon having a well-establised and astute local partner. Empowerment of Community by Community Capacity Building: Community capacity is the integration of human capital, organizational resources, and social capital existing within a given community. These can be used to solve collective problems and improve or maintain the well-being of that community (Chaskin, 2001: 7). Empowered communities participate in integrated planning and participation. For example, low cost simplified sewerage with a shallow lay-out of sewage pipes if passed through property lots, is known as condominial sewerage. The installing of this type can be done by the community. On the other hand, pipes laid deep underground and on both sides of a street, are of the conventional type (UNEP International Environmental Technology Center, 2000: 116). Capacity building, as stated by Dia (1996:27), is characterized by three main criteria: skill upgrading, procedural improvements and organizational strengthening. It involves optimal use of the existing technical capacity and resources in a sustainable fashion. BROAD PROBLEMS AND ISSUES TO BE INVESTIGATED: The agencies which are responsible for maintaining the water supply and sanitation services at KwaMashu: public sector, private, or partnerships, involvement of any national or international operators, presence of any local agency for the services. Availabiltiy of piped supply to all the households, number of piped outlets in each household, any common, public water outlets are being used. System of sanitation. Perceptions of the residents with regard to the water and sanitation services available to them. Are they satisfied, if not, why? Their difficulties and problems if any. Whether the service tariffs are reasonable and affordable by the residents. Whether the community will join together to approach relevant authorities and take appropriate action for the common good. KEY QUESTIONS TO BE ASKED: 1) How far has KwaMashu benefited from Durban’s innovative techniques in water and sanitation, since it is situated close to the northern periphery of the city? 2) Is the present government responsive to people’s needs and difficulties? Would you vote for the same government for another term? 3) Since KwaMashu is a settlement for contract workers, who may not have employment all the year round, what self-employment methods are being implemented: any small businesses, cottage industries, etc? 4) Do you think economic upliftment will increase access to basic amenities? What skills and abilities are available for self-employment? 5) Whether the residents of KwaMashu will unite for governmental assistance in the provision of vocational training and guidance, to start small units and businesses? 6) Which area has better water and sanitation facilities: urban or rural; and why? 7) As compared to living in rural areas, how do you perceive life here in KwaMashu? 8) Other than water and sanitation, are developments in other departments satisfactory? BASIC PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES FOR THE RESEARCH PROJECT: Integrated water resources development and management should be undertaken in a holistic, determined and sustained manner to meet development goals and protect the environment (Hofwegen; Jaspers, 1999: p.14). Using locally available technology and planning infrastructure according to funds available: In African cities, with the exception of areas of high population densities, conditions to support water-borne waste disposal systems do not exist, as they are not cost-effective to install by the urban authorities. The ventilated improved pit latrine or similar improved dry and local soil collection system, is perhaps one of the best solutions to the current urban sanitation problem in Africa (Kironde, 1992: p.1282). The engineering system used: as stated by Savic (2005: p.6), should be based on the criteria of reliability, resiliency and robustness, and the levels of risk should be low. Water and sanitation for all: According to Alaerts, et al, (1999: p.128), water is an economic good, and should be managed as such, serving all population groups with at least a basic level of services. Financial sustainability over the long term can be maintained by revenues received as charges for the services provided. Water supply and sanitation services should be demand-driven: based on people’s awareness and willingness to pay. Services should be managed by the lowest level of organizational structure capable of handling the task with stakeholders’ participation. Creation of an institutional framework, e.g. establishing a regional water supply and sanitation corporation which assigns specific responsibility for regulatory and executive functions, ensures that resources are managed efficiently, and sustainable services at acceptable standards of delivery are provided (p128). Hygiene and Sanitation: Water supply projects achieve their full impact only when linked first to hygiene education, and then to sanitation (Grigg, 1993: p.505). Sustainability and the ability to perform effectively and indefinitely after donor assistance has been terminated, is the basic measure for success in development. Essentials for sustainability: 1) appropriate engineering design and application, 2) selection of sustainable technologies with regard to operations and maintenance, 3) finance plans which include the cost of operations and maintenance, 4) training, 5) wide participation and 6) comprehensiveness (p.505). RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: The purpose of the proposed program of research is an assessment of perceptions on water and sanitation services in a case study of KwaMashu which is a Durban metro. I will seek to specify the growth and development that has taken place in the area of water and sanitation in KwaMashu. Research will constitute: studying the agencies which are responsible, the financial sector policies that are needed to support development and maintenance of the water and sanitation departments, the relevant institutions, and whether they are implementing their policies for the benefit of the urban poor. The existence of a local organization that can develop solutions for the particular area, is of great importance. If none exists, the local government should be advised. The agencies which are responsible for providing water and sanitation may be from the private sector, the public sector or there may be public-private partnerships (PPP) operating to serve the area. In-depth interviews of representatives from the donor institutions, various participating agencies and the residents of KwaMashu are required to understand the current situation. Any short-comings, grievances, lack of services, high costs of facilities, or difficulties will be highlighted with the help of qualitative analysis. The intended outcome of the research program is to provide practical advice on the financial institutions’ policies for reform and the financial plans of donor agencies who have the urban poor on their agenda. Institutions such as the municipality of Durban which covers the area of KwaMashu may benefit from information about the financial resources available to them. The advice may also benefit private sector participants and partnerships providing water and sanitation to the locality, and the residents of KwaMashu, who need to be empowered with all relevant information. Government subsidy and all available resources should be described to them. Also, the power of community capital, and what they can achieve if they work as a group for the common good, can be explained to them. The importance and methods of water conservation and integrated water resource management should be clearly understood by them. Self-help techniques such as water demand management, waste-water re-use, and ground-water recharge by rain-water overflow can be explained to them. Similarly, the laying of condominial sewerage systems can be demonstrated for their benefit. Research based on survey consisting of sampling, data collection and analysis will be undertaken. An integrated approach, utilizing both qualitative as well as quantitative surveys, and interviews will be a part of the methodology used in this research work. Obtaining accurate samples, states de Vaus (2002: 69), enables the researcher to generalize from a sample to a wider population. According to McNeill; Chapman (2005: 28), to obtain large amounts of data usually in a statistical form, from a large number of people in a relatively short time, a self-completion questionnaire is used.The survey method is seen to be scientific, objective and free from bias because it is normally carried out under controlled conditions (p.29). According to Rubin; Babbie (2005: 526), qualitative research is analysis of non-numerical data obtained through participant observation, content analysis, in-depth interviews and other qualitative research techniques. Quantitative research consists of defining the problem, conducting a sample survey, design and data collection and analysis. A combination of both methods can be used for conducting a comprehensive research study. Bamberger (2000: 43) states that it is important to have clear goals for the qualitative component, and to integrate it closely with the quantitative work from the outset. For this project, field-work for pilot study of a sample of the population, distribution of questionnaires to all the residents of KwaMashu, and for collection of the completed forms will be necessary. Data analysis of the information collected will provide quantitative facts as well as qualitative assessments of the water and sanitation facilities that are currently available. Further, in-depth interviews of key personnel from the municipality, any private or public sector participants, national or international operators will provide crucial data for assessing the situation. LIMITATIONS OF RESEARCH: Empirical research based on observation and interviews, may be long drawn out. Representatives from several likely agencies will have to be interviewed. Also, interviewing only top level officials from the donor financial institutions will give valid information, which may prove to be difficult to arrange. Similarly, distribution and collection of questionnaires from a large number of the population of KwaMashu has to be done carefully, as otherwise, getting back the completed documents may prove to be difficult. Instead, the “structured approach” to using questionnaires, by the interviewer asking the respondees the questions, and noting down their answers may be done, to ensure that all the data will be available. However, this again will be quite time-consuming, as a sufficiently large representative group will have to be questioned. However, by using an accurate sample, reliable data can be collected. Since I will be doing all the investigations and interviews myself, the criterion of reliability and validity will be taken care of. CONCLUSION: The schedule for conducting the research will be planned, taking into account all the components: sample survey, data collection by interviews and questionnaires, and also observation and study of water and sanitation facilities available at KwaMashu. Then the data analysis by statistical methods and preparation of research report will be undertaken. Questionnaires for in-depth interviews of the financial institutions and the participating agencies, along with questionnaires for data collection from the residents of KwaMashu will be prepared. The budget for the research will comprise mainly of travelling expenditures, materials for preparation of questionnaires and for getting them printed. Awareness and knowledge of an integrated approach for sustainability and equity in water supply and sanitation facilities will be established among the residents ofKwaMashu. REFERENCES Alaerts, G.J; Hartvelt, F.J.A; Patorni, Franois Marie. (1999). 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