Advertisements and Concepts of Masculinity - Dissertation Example

Dissertation Proposal: Advertisements and Concepts of Masculinity: Implications for School-aged Boys By Introduction Conventional concepts of masculinity are perpetuated through popular culture in the form of stereotypes about gender that have consequences for boys (Smith, 2011, p. 1). Boys, however are often neglected in studies in favour of the affects of gender stereotypes in popular culture on girls. Still, boys are no less affected than girls and often do see masculinity represented in popular culture and confront these stereotypical perceptions of what boys should be, how they should act and in the process what it means to be male. Typical stereotypical representations are “boys don’t cry; boys don’t wear pink; boys don’t play with doll” and perhaps more destructive, “boys are undisciplined, aggressive, noisy, and like to fight” (Smith, 2011, p. 1). Advertisements play a significant role in the construction of masculine stereotypes. For example, a study conducted by Grogan and Richards (2002) explored the impact of advertisements on boys between the ages of 8 and 16 and young adult men. The results of the study revealed that males in all age groups and the young adult men felt that body images portrayed in advertisements indicate that being lean and muscular were attributes of a healthy male. Moreover, being overweight was entirely inconsistent with masculinity and was a sign of weakness. Thus there was a prevailing lack of sympathy and prevailing blaming and shaming involved where males were overweight. All of the participants expressed a great deal of pressure to be lean and muscular (Grogan & Richards, 2002, p. 219). A study conducted by Kolbe and Muehling (1995) also revealed that children in general evaluate advertisement and products in gender terms and thus are affected by gender roles prescribed by products within advertisements. The effects of media on images of gender roles have always been a serious concern for parents, caregivers, policy-makers and educators for decades (Eisenstock, 1984, p. 417). Social comparison theory and sociocultural theories of body image indicate that boys can incur significant problems when confronted with masculinity ideals that are unrealistic and impossible to achieve (Hargreaves and Tiggeman, 2004, 351). This research study will investigate the problematic affects of advertisements as a media outlet relaying concepts of masculinity on school-aged boys. The media effects of boys is under-researched and since boys are just as vulnerable to media effects as girls are, there is a need to research and understand how media effects boys images and informs their concept of masculinity. By researching the effects of advertisements on concepts of masculinity for school-aged boys, the proposed research will contribute to closing an important gap in the literature. Significance of the Study Reports of deadly violence in school, youth gangs, persistent drug use and a number of social problems are largely attributed to school-aged boys and media effects (Gordon, Lahey, Kawai, Loeber, Stouthamer-Loeber, & Farrington, 2004). A survey conducted by Jarc (2012) on 23,000 high school students in the US revealed that 50% of the boys compared to 37% of the girls participating in the survey had hit another student out of anger. All indications are therefore that male students are more likely than girls to engage in bullying behaviour and to accept that violence is acceptable behaivour (Jarc, 2012). A major concern for policy-makers and educators is the extent to which drugs, youth gangs, bullying and violence disrupts the school environment. Classrooms and academic performance and processes are disrupted and this impacts not only students and schools, but entire communities (Twenlow & Sacco, 2012). Students do not feel safe in school and this can lead to higher attrition rates which in turn impacts the academic, social and career prospects of students who will eventually become burdens to tax payers (Twenlow & Sacco, 2012). It is largely established in the literature that media violence both desensitizes and influences violence and anti-social behaivour in youth, with boys being more susceptible than girls to negative media effects involving violence, drugs use and gang membership (Hoffmann, 2011). The proposed research study is significant for its contribution to current understanding of the link between juvenile delinquency and in particular school-aged boys’ propensity toward violence, drug use, bullying and other forms of disruptive behaviour in schools. Media effects in terms of desensitizing and effects of exposure to violence are well-documented in the literature. However a more holistic approach to media effects is missing in the literature. The proposed study will take a holistic approach to the underlying influences of the media in terms of disruptive behaviour of male youth. If we form a more complete understanding of the media effects on boys’ behaviour, we can devise more effective methods for regulating behaviours that disrupt schools, classrooms and whole communities. Preliminary Review of Literature Concepts of Masculinity and School-aged Boys A study conducted by Marsh (1989) among 12,266 males from early adolescence to early adulthood evaluated the effects of age and sex on self-concepts. The males completed three Self Description Questionnaires. The results of the study indicated that self-concept was less acute in early pre-adolescence to middle adolescence and increased from middle adolescence to early adulthood. More importantly, the results of the study demonstrated that sex stereotypes shaped self-concepts among all age groups (Marsh, 1989). This study therefore demonstrates that concepts of masculinity influences how school age boys see themselves and perhaps forms a basis for how they wish others to see them. Traditional concepts of masculinity can be associated with unhealthy behaviour on the part of adolescent males. Pleck, Sonenstein and Ku (1993) reviewed the results of the 1988 National Survey of Adolescent Males conducted in the US and concluded that males with conventional concepts of masculinity tend to engage in risky heterosexual behaviour. These males take the position that impregnating a female and refusing to use protection during sexual intercourse are all hallmarks of masculine behaviour. As a result, conventional concepts of masculinity can lead to risky behaviour among young males, especially in increasing teen-age pregnancy and the transmission of sexual diseases among teens (Pleck, et al., 1993). The results of Pleck, et al.’s (1993) study are consistent with feminist’s theories on the consequences of conventional concepts of masculinity. According feminist theories of gender, conventional concepts of masculinity inform dominant norms that can be harmful to male identity and behaviour. According to dominant masculinity norms specific attributes are valued more aggressively and include emphasizing physical “toughness”, emotional toughness, “projected self-sufficiency” and “heterosexual dominance over women” (Chu, Porche, & Tolman, 2005, p. 94). Since boys are socialized toward these conventional concepts of masculinity, they can adopt harmful behaviour in attempting to conform to prevailing concepts of masculinity (Chu, et al., 2005). Ashley’s (2003) study on primary school boys in the UK, indicates that identity formation of boys in primary school settings is influenced by hegemonic masculinity values adopted from peers. In this regard, primary school boys identify masculinity values and concepts via their peers and seek peer approval in a variety of ways. Quite often these concepts and values are expressed through bullying which is quite often “homophobic” and “sexualized” in nature (Ashley, 2003, p. 257). A review of literature therefore suggest that school-age boys are vulnerable to concepts of masculinity. The literature reviews that school boys form identities and seek to enact those identities based on concepts of masculinity. Unfortunately, concepts of identity do not always correspond with healthy behaviour and has been shown to be cause of some of the most serious social and health problems affecting youth development. These social and health issues include teen-aged pregnancy, bullying and the spread of sexually transmitted diseases. The literature also reveals that values and concepts of masculinity are derived from peers and acted out together with and for the approval of peers. Research on peer influences among young people forms a large part of research. This research however, fills a gap in the literature by investigating how and to what extent advertisements inform and influence school-aged boys’ concept of masculinity. Thus the next part of this preliminary literature review examines the literature on the masculinity concepts and identity via advertisements and its impact on school-aged boys. Advertisements, Masculinity and School-aged Boys Hentges, Bartsch, and Meier (2007) conducted a content analysis of television advertisements with a view to identifying and explaining gender representations based on target audiences. The target audiences studied were various age groups of children. The results of the study demonstrated that gender identity for young children were diverse, although male identity was more prevalent. Television advertisements targeting adolescents emphasized the physical attributes (Hentges, et al., 2007). Therefore, both male and female adolescents were exposed to the physical attributes of gender identity. Since children of all ages are usually exposed to the same advertisements, it can be argued that young boys and girls are likewise exposed to the idea that a specific physical attribute defines gender identities. It is hardly surprising that advertisements are gendered as the products that they promote for children are highly gendered. For example, Blakemore and Centers (2005) conducted a study aimed at rating masculinity and femininity characteristics of toys. The study was conducted using 126 toys which were rated by 292 undergraduates respectively. The undergraduates were required to rate the toys in terms of strongly masculine, moderately masculine, neutral, moderately feminine, and strongly feminine. This study was used to form the basis for categorizing the toys as a means of conducting a second part of the study. In the second part of the study 709 undergraduates were required to identify the characteristics of the toys categorized in the first part of the study. The results of the study indicated that while girls’ toys were characterized as linked to beauty, domesticity and nurturing, boys’ toys were linked to representations of violence, competition, excitement and danger (Blakemore & Centers, 2005). The literature therefore reveals that gender identities are communicated to children, through toys and other socialization methods such as schools and through family life. As West and Zimmerman (1987) argue, gender is a routine activity and is something that we do automatically in our daily activities and relationships. The literature also reveals that gender identities are prominently communicated through advertisements. For example, Schroeder and Zwick (2004) argue that masculinity is linked to consumption through “imagery, products, desires and passions in advertising and consumer culture” (p. 21). Schroeder and Zwick (2004) suggest that: Consumption plays a major role in the construction, maintenance, and representation of male bodies. Almost all products are gendered in a practice of normative sexual dualism reinforced and maintained within the interlocking cultural institutions of marketing communication…(p. 21). While it is clearly understood and reported in the literature that masculinity concepts and values are relayed through advertising, there is a paucity of research on how those concepts are received by and influences school-aged boys. A study conducted by Messner, Hunt and Dunbar (1999) sheds some light on how advertisements relay messages about masculinity to school-aged boys. The study was conducted using a content analysis of sporting programmes and games on several national networks in the US and accompanying television commercials. The study also involved a national poll of 1,200 children between the ages of 10 and 17, two focus groups with boys and 300 interviews with children including 200 boys and 100 girls. The two focus groups consisted of one group containing boys between the ages of 12 and 14 and the second focus groups containing boys between the ages of 15 and 17. The purpose of the study was discover the concepts of masculinity conveyed to children, especially boys via sporting events and commercials. The rationale for the study was that since boys were 80% more likely to watch sports on television than girls were, the products and images advertised during sporting programmes would present messages that were more relevant to boys (Mesners, et al., 1999). The results of the study indicated that sporting announcers and analysts tend to glorify the more aggressive athletes and in doing so convey the message that physically aggressive males epitomize the ideal and desired masculine identity. Moreover, athletes who play while injured are presented as heroic. Other embedded messages were found in commentary on unnecessary roughness between players. Announcers laughed off the behaviour or downplayed it indicating that violence is accepted (Mesners, et al., 1999). Advertising during sports programming is dominated by automobiles, alcoholic products, snacks, fast foods and video games. Advertising takes the form of commercial breaks and logos displayed on various banners on game sights or through announcements indicating that sport statistics are sponsored by a specific product. The television commercials tend to follow the sport programming images and place male figures in dangerous, violent or competitive situations from which they emerge victorious on account of their desire for or use of the product advertised (Mesners, et al., 1999). Cumulatively, the results of the study indicate that exposure to television sport programming and accompanying advertisement exposed young males to specific concepts of masculinity. In particular, the message conveyed was a “real man is strong, tough, aggressive, and above all a winner” (Mesners, et al., 1999, p. 13). In order for a real man to win, he must be prepared to: …compromise his own long-term health by showing guts in the fact of danger, by fighting other men, when necessary, and by playing hurt when he’s injured. He must avoid being soft, he must be the aggressor…his aggressiveness will win him…the adoring attention of beautiful women and the admiration of other men (Mesners, et al., 1999, p. 13). The study conducted by Mesners, et al., (1999) is important because it reveals the underlying messages in advertising with respect to concepts of masculinity and its propensity to reach and impress young males. This study also reveals how young boys perceive and interpret these messages. However, this study does not reveal whether or not boys reinforce these concepts of masculinity and thus suggests areas for further research. The suggested area for further research is an inquiry into whether or not young males attempt to replicate concepts of masculinity revealed in advertisements. This study will fill this gap in the literature by providing empirical evidence of whether or not school-aged boys do attempt to replicate concepts of masculinity captured by advertisements. Conceptual Framework The results of this proposed study will be analysed using gender schema theory. In this regard, gender schema theory assumes that “sex typing” is at least partially informed by “gender-based schematic processing” (Bem, 1981, p. 354). Gender-based schematic processing involves the processing of information “on the basis of the sex-linked associations that constitute the gender schema” (Bem, 1981, p. 354). In particular, concepts of the self in terms of how the individual sees and forms their identities and behaivours and how they want others to see them are informed by sex-typing (Bem, 1981). The proposed study will also use social comparison theory to evaluate and explain the results of the proposed study. Social comparison theory in studies on masculinity provides a framework for understanding males’ concept of what “it means to be a man and what they need to do to be their bodies in order to conform to these sociocultural expectations” (Steinfeldt, Gilchrist, Halterman, Gomory, & Steinfeldt, 2011, p. 325). It is generally assumed that males “internalize sociocultural messages that impact how they perceive their bodies,” and “suggests that individuals evaluate themselves based on comparing themselves to others” (Stienfeldt, et al., 2011, p. 325). This proposed study however, is not merely concerned with how males are influenced to view and present their bodies, but how media representations inform and promote concepts of masculinity and its impact on young boys in school in general. Hegemonic masculinity theory will also be used to analyse the concept of masculinity in advertising and its impact on school-aged boys. In this regard, hegemonic masculinity refers to those things that males do to safeguard male subordination of females. Hegemonic masculinity recognizes that the most valued concepts of what it means to be a male should be adopted and practiced in order to legitimate male domination over females. Masculine hegemonic also recognizes that male values that define masculinity can change from time to time (Connell & Messerschmidt, 2005). In summary, the results of the empirical data collected in the proposed study will be analysed using gender schema theory, social comparison theory and hegemonic masculinity theory. Together the three theories provide a framework for identifying and analyzing how concepts of masculinity are presented in advertisements as evidenced by the interpretations, perceptions and behaviour of school-aged boys. In particular, gender schema theory will aid in the identification of variables that are indicative of sex-typing in identity formation. Social comparison theory will aid in the identification and analysis of variables associated with what attributes and behavioural factors are necessary for masculine identities. Hegemonic masculinity theory will aid in identifying the variables that constitute masculine values and idealization (See Figure 1). Figure 1: Conceptual Framework Research Questions The proposed research study will be guided by the following research questions: How is masculinity defined through advertisements? What messages do concepts of masculinity through advertisements convey to school-aged boys? How do advertisement conceptualizations of masculinity affect school-aged boys? Hypotheses The following hypotheses will be tested by the proposed research study: H1: Advertisements reflect unrealistic and unattainable concepts of masculinity that school-aged boys attempt to achieve. H2: Advertisement construct concepts of masculinity which have an impression on school-aged boys. H3: Advertisements construct images of masculinity that have an impression on what school-boys want to be like. Null Hypothesis: School-aged boys are unaffected by concepts of masculinity in advertisements. Aim and Objectives Aim The aim of the proposed research study is to identify the concepts of masculinity in advertisements and the implications of those concepts of masculinity for school-aged boys. Objectives The objectives of the proposed research study are to: Identify concepts of masculinity conveyed through advertising Identify school-aged boys’ reception and interpretation of concepts of masculinity as conveyed through advertising. Determine whether or not school-aged boys attempt to replicate concepts of masculinity as conveyed through advertising. Determine how school-aged boys attempt to replicate concepts of masculinity as conveyed through advertising. Research Design and Methods A quantitative research method will be used. A survey using a Likert-like scale in which statements describing access to advertisement, contents of advertisement, ideas of masculinity informed by advertisements and behaviour consistent with these ideas will be made in the survey. The respondent will be asked to select a response, which is categorically scaled (between1 and 5) that is closest to his opinion. The responses are Agree (1) Strongly Agree (2) Neutral (3) Disagree (4) Strongly Disagree (5) (See Appendix 1). The purpose of the survey is to determine the extent to which school-aged boys form their masculine identities on the basis of exposure to advertisement contents and messages and how they seek to replicate those identities in their social interactions and behaviour in general. Data Collection Probability sampling will be used in that 100 school boys will be targeted at a public school in London. The researcher will obtain the aid of school administrators and teachers in the distribution of the surveys. Consent will be obtained from parents/guardians as children are under the age of 18. This will be arranged via the school. One hundred school-aged boys are targeted with a view to obtaining a usable sample of at least 50 boys. The researcher recognizes that some parents or guardians will not agree to allow their boys to participate in the study. The researcher also accepts that given the age and experience of school boys, some of the boys will not likely complete the survey satisfactorily and thus not all of the surveys will be usable. Data Analysis The data will be analysed using simple and descriptive statistics in terms of means and standard deviations. A test-retest will be conducted on the survey for the purpose of testing and validating internal consistency reliability. In other words, with the aid school administrators the survey will be distributed twice at two week intervals to test consistency of responses. A positivist philosophy will be used in analyzing the data: there are objectives truths which can be found. The research takes a deductive approach and test the hypotheses informed by social comparison theory and sociocultural theories of body image. Reliability In order to ensure that the research results are reliable the researcher will conduct a test-retest process to check for internal reliability consistency in the responses. The test-retest process involves conducting the same survey among the same sample of students at two different intervals. A two week interval will improve the chances that the respondents do not recall the contents of the survey and if they answered the first survey truthfully, the responses to the second survey should be close to the responses in the first survey. In order to ensure reliability of the results the researcher will also create an audit trail demonstrating that the researcher is the only person with custody of the survey and the survey data. Ethical Considerations As the school-aged boys will likely be under the age of 18, informed consent will present ethical issues as children under the age of 18 are not legally competent to give their consent. Thus in order to comply with ethical standards of research, the student’s parent or guardian will be asked to give their consent. A consent form will therefore be presented to the appropriate parent or guardian (see Appendix 2). In complying with ethical standards of research the participants and their parent or guardian will be informed of the reason for the research as well as the nature of the research. This information will be contained in the consent form distributed to parents or guardians. Another important ethical issue is the voluntary participation of the individuals taking part in the study. In order to ensure that the participants are voluntary completing the survey, the participants will be informed that they are free to withdraw from the study at any time after they give their consent (See Appendix 2). To further ensure voluntary participation, no rewards or force will be used to induce participation in the survey. The privacy of the participants will be protected in that the survey is a blind item and the names and identities of the participants will not be used in the research report. The risk of harm associated with the survey is minimum in that the students may suffer the inconvenience of completing a survey. Safeguards against this inconvenience is provided for by the participants’ right to withdraw from the study as they see fit. Time Table Week Task 1 Review Literature 2 Design Survey informed by literature 3 Contact school and obtain permission to distribute surveys through teachers and administrators 4 Distribute surveys 5&6 Collect Surveys and analyse results 7&8 Compare results of the data with the literature 9 Prepare first draft of dissertation 10 Review draft and prepare final version Appendix 1 Survey Please circle the number that best reflects your opinion as follows: Strongly Agree (1) Agree (2) Neutral (3) Disagree (4) Strongly Disagree (5) 1. I choose my tennis shoes based on my favourite male athlete’s advertisement. Strongly Agree (1) Agree (2) Neutral (3) Disagree (4) Strongly Disagree (5) 2. I choose my clothes based on my favourite male athlete’s advertisement Strongly Agree (1) Agree (2) Neutral (3) Disagree (4) Strongly Disagree (5) 3. I want to wear the same clothes that male celebrities wear in advertisements. Strongly Agree (1) Agree (2) Neutral (3) Disagree (4) Strongly Disagree (5) 4. I like tough males in advertisements Strongly Agree (1) Agree (2) Neutral (3) Disagree (4) Strongly Disagree (5) 5. I think being tough is how males should be. Strongly Agree (1) Agree (2) Neutral (3) Disagree (4) Strongly Disagree (5) 6. I don’t think it is right for males to be soft Strongly Agree (1) Agree (2) Neutral (3) Disagree (4) Strongly Disagree (5) 7. I try to be tough like males in advertisements Strongly Agree (1) Agree (2) Neutral (3) Disagree (4) Strongly Disagree (5) 8. I dress like males in advertisements Strongly Agree (1) Agree (2) Neutral (3) Disagree (4) Strongly Disagree (5) 9. I am afraid that I will be bullied if I am soft. Strongly Agree (1) Agree (2) Neutral (3) Disagree (4) Strongly Disagree (5) 10. When I am angry I will fight. Strongly Agree (1) Agree (2) Neutral (3) Disagree (4) Strongly Disagree (5) Appendix 2 Consent Form I_________________________ the parent/guardian of ______________________ agree to allow my son to participate in a study on Advertisements and Concepts of Masculinity: Implications for School-Aged Boys. I have been informed that the study will help to shed light on the negative effects of media on boys’ behaviour. I have also been informed that my son’s identity will be protected and that he is free to withdraw from this study at any time after I consent. My consent is indicated by my signature below. 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