How Monologues Explore Internal Conflicts of Character - Essay Example

HOW MONOLOGUES EXPLORE THE IDENTITY, INTERNAL CONFLICTS AND COMPLEXITIES OF CHARACTER ABSTRACT The present study aims to investigate the significance of the portrayal of the personality traits and characteristics of the speaker as well as the listeners presented by a skilled and learned author by creating a fabulous monologue. The paper also draws out the historical background and philosophical ideas described by the authors in their monologues through the mouth of one speaker only. The paper reflects the mastery of diction in creating a monologue, where nature, psychology, social status, political background, religious affiliations, cultural traits and individual identity of various characters are successfully explored by the author. The paper evaluates the Shakespearean proficiency in respect of monologue writing with special reference to his play on the famous English King of 16th century i.e. Henry VIII. The renowned poet and matchless playwright i.e. Sir William Shakespeare has elaborated the personalities of the wives of King Henry VIII, and King’s attitude and behaviour towards them. The historical play, based on the long monologue, reveals the inner conflicts existing in the personality of different characters of the play in a highly eloquent way that the readers do not require any further introduction with these characters, and the words delivered by one single character or speaker are enough to describe each and everything related to the listener or the character under discussion. The present study compares the Shakespearean diction while creating a monologue with the pieces of literature produced by Sophocles, Robert Browning, Samuel Beckett and others poets of English Literature. The thesis statement is: How a refined and polished monologue supersedes even the dialogues while depicting the identity, internal conflicts and complexities of character in an extremely vivid, eloquent and comprehensive way THE ESSAY It has aptly been stated that monologues maintain great significance in the history of art and literature due to the very reality that a monologue created in an expressive way can easily articulate the feelings, emotions and sentiments of the narrator and the audience to whom he is addressing. “A dramatic monologue is a piece of literature, produced in a poetic form that must have a speaker and an implied auditor, and that the reader often perceives a gap between what that speaker says and what he or she actually reveals.” (Landow, 2002: quoted in victorianweb.org) In dramatic monologue, there is generally one speaker, and one or more listeners. The reader can judge and assess the expressions and gestures of the listeners through the words delivered by the speaker. A dramatic monologue usually describes a critical moment of the speaker's life, and offers an indirect revelation of his or her temperament and personality. (Peck & Coyle, 1999: p 26) The history of monologue is as old as the history of literature itself, which can be seen in the epic created by the poets of ancient Greece including Homer, Sophocles and others. Homer’s “Iliad” consists of various long speeches made by the brave generals, commanders and conquerors, which draw out the entire political and war scenario in few lines only. “The Iliad is”, Shurin opines, “composed in large part of long speeches, either in dramatic monologues or informal dialogues. This format may have offered opportunities for dramatics during recital of poems.” (1984: p 30) Homer’s Iliad maintains special significance in this regard and the future generations followed the same in their works as Graves submits while discussing Greek mythology. “At Hera's orders the Titan seized Zeus's newly born son Dionysus, a horned child crowned with serpents and, despite his transformations, tore him into shreds. These they boiled in a cauldron, while a pomegranate-tree sprouted from the soil where his blood had fallen.” (Graves, 1964: p 103) Homer’s monologue creating is not confined to his The Iliad only; rather, his other poems including Odyssey and others also consist of splendid monologues, which prove the proficiency of this great blind poet of ancient Greece on the one hand, and the splendid determination, courage and gallant deeds displayed by the gods, goddesses and generals during their war expeditions on the other. Furthermore, faithfulness of pretty beloveds and wives are also examined through monologues in Homer’s poems, as Odysseus assesses Penelope’s faithfulness and loyalty towards him in Odyssey in monologue form in these lines, which affirm Homer’s command over narrating the entire socio-cultural values of his times in few lines and through the words of one speaker only: “Princess! the Pow'rs Olympian never made A female heart insensible as thine. Another wife breathes not who could endure Such distance from her husband new-return'd To his own country in the twentieth year. After such hardship. Nurse ! prepare a couch For my repose ; her adamantine heart Yields not, and I must pass the night alone ^.” (Odyssey: XXIII: Lines 185-192: Retrieved from Cowper, 2008: p 257) Similarly, another great poet of ancient times i.e. Sophocles also depicts the philosophical themes in a superb way through his magnificent monologues. His wonderful “Oedipus the King” and other plays also carry monologues delivered by various characters including King Oedipus, Queen Jocasta, the blind soothsayer and others, where these characters indicate the circumstances they have been undergoing, as the Queen mourns on knowing the fact regarding her marriage with her own son Oedipus in these words: “Why should a mortal man, the sport of chance, With no assured foreknowledge, be afraid? Best live a careless life from hand to mouth. This wedlock with thy mother fear not thou. How oft it chances that in dreams a man Has wed his mother! He who least regards Such brainsick fantasies lives most at ease.” (Quoted in http://www.online-literature.com/sophocles/oedipus/1/) These lines describe the Queen’s deep concerns regarding the fate of her husband, son and herself, which indicates towards the entire history of the family since the birth of King Oedipus to King Laius and Queen Jocasta, and their decision to kill the newly born Oedipus on the advice of the soothsayer. Furthermore, the monologue also states the circumstances leading towards the killing of King Laius and Oedipus’s marriage to his own mother i.e. Queen Jocasta. Moreover, the monologues delivered by Tiresias and Oedipus. Tiresias’s reply to Oedipus is comprehensive in texture and climax of the play in manner. He blames Oedipus as the reason behind the disturbance in the City in these words: “Even though you are a tyrant, I must at least be granted an equal reply, for I, too, have the right to speech. For I am no slave to you, at all, but to Loxias, so I will not be written off as Creon’s client. I will reply, since you reproach me as blind: You, even though you see clearly, do not see the scope of your evil, nor where you live, nor with whom you dwell.” (Oedipus the King: Lines 428—435) Hence, in the above lines, Sophocles has ironically pointed out towards the unawareness of Oedipus Rex, who taunts Tiresias of being blind, but Tiresias proves, through this monologue, that actually Oedipus is blind and has no knowledge regarding his marriage with his own mother. Consequently, inner conflict of both Oedipus and Tiresias can be observed in each and every line of the above-mentioned monologue. Though monologue writing had been prevailing in literature since ever, yet it got projection and popularity in Elizabethan era, where Shakespearean comedies and tragedies gave this piece of literature a new direction, scope, vastness and meanings. The greatest playwright of all times and all ages i.e. Sir William Shakespeare established this wonderful literary form in his plays. The monologues created in his tragedy under the title “King Henry VIII” serves as the true presentation of inner conflicts and natural tendencies of the speaker. The play King Henry VIII has been created in the historical perspective, where the domestic and romantic life of the Tudor King Henry of early 16th century has been discussed in the Elizabethan perspective, because the playwright had fears lest the portrayal of exact description of the cruelties inflicted by the parents of Queen Elizabeth I, i.e. King Henry VIII and Queen Anne Boleyn, on Queen Catherine of Aragon may irritate the Queen. On the contrary, the playwright has depicted the events in such a way that could be acceptable for all members of the then royal family on the one hand, and for both the supporters of Queen Catherine and Queen Anne on the other. Queen Elizabeth I was the second daughter of King Henry VIII and first child of Queen Anne Boleyn, who was at the helm of the government at the eve of the staging of this play. The royal family used to attend theatres during those days; it is therefore, the playwrights generally focused the royal life in their plays and poems. The play under study consists of various monologues delivered by different characters of the play. Every monologue contains vastness of ocean in its fold, as these monologues reflect all the internal and external conflicts existing at that era, both at individual and collective levels, which could be witnessed by exploring the monologue attributed to Queen Catherine of Aragon. In Act II, Scene IV of the play, in which she sought the mercy of the King, and expressed her deepest grief on being victim of the annulment at the hands of the King even against the decree issued by the Pope of Rome. The monologue manifestly expresses that the speaker seeks help from the same person, which is responsible for the unjust act inflicted upon her. In addition, the speaker also aims to win the sympathies from the courtiers so that they may persuade the king regarding cancelling the annulment the King is determined to issue. Every word of the monologue expresses deepest sorrow of the speaker. It also reveals the internal conflict of the listener i.e. the King, who also appears to be displeased with his own decision made out of his sheer desire to have a male heir to the House of Tudor, which the Queen Catherine was unable to produce during nearly two and half decades matrimonial relationship with the King. Kind of the Monologue: It has aptly been observed that poems are either subjective or objective in nature, but monologues are generally subjective in diction, form and exposure and provide the readers with the ideas and thoughts of the speaker. But Shakespeare has given monologue quite new meanings and novel dimensions. The future writers and poets imitated Shakespearean style while writing monologue. The Augustan and Puritan classes of poets lay stress on objectivity, and they are always eager to convey a specific message and moral lesson to the readers, while the poets belonging to the Romantic Age are subjective in nature and there is art for art's sake and there is no moral message to communicate at all. While analysing the poem under study, it becomes evident that King Henry VIII carries objectivity in its theme and diction, where it is not only the King who is the listener or the sole decider regarding the fate of the Queen; on the contrary, the address made by Catherine is meant for the entire court. Structure of the Monologue: Plot structure refers to the administration of the developments and incidents in a poem, play, prose or drama. Renowned critic and philosopher of ancient times i.e. Aristotle has discussed the characteristics of an exquisite piece of literature in his Poetics, according to which a refined literary piece presents the plot that contains a beginning, middle and an end skilfully interlinked with one another. The construction of plot is knitted in such a way that if one incident is omitted from the play, it must jeopardize the very unity and coherence of the whole play at large. The same is applied with the monologue under study, which has been created in blank verse, where Catherine has bravely argued in favour of her claim as the justified and legal Queen of England, as she views: “What cause Hath my behaviour given to your displeasure That thus you should proceed to put me off And take your good grace from me? Heaven witness, I have been to you a true and humble wife, At all times to your will conformable, Even in fear to kindle your dislike, Yea, subject to your countenance--glad or sorry As I saw it inclined. When was the hour I ever contradicted your desire Or made it not mine too”? (Act II, Scene IV: quoted in rhymezone.com/r/gwic) Here the Queen seems to be realising the authenticity and validity of her marriage with the King twenty four years ago, and during this period she has been performing her obligations as a highly committed, devoted and sacrificing spouse towards her husband. The Queen declares herself as alien in England, and indirectly points out the very fact that since she belongs to some other country i.e. Spain, she has no friend in England besides the King, her husband, as she views: “I am a most poor woman and a stranger, Born out of your dominions: having here, No judge indifferent, nor no more assurance, Of equal friendship and proceeding.” Moreover, the monologue also affirms the prejudiced royal decisions and decrees issued by the crown in favour of or against the person under trial. The House of Tudor is particularly famous for such injustices and cruelties, where the punishments and penalties were announced in cold blood without acknowledging the consequences of these decisions. Thus Shakespeare, in this monologue, has skilfully disclosed her origin, race, ethnicity and citizenship within few lines through her own mouth. The monologue also reveals that the Queen Catherine belonged to the royal family of Spain and was first married to the elder brother of King Henry VIII, who died in the prime of his youth without entering into physical relationship with his bride i.e. Queen Catherine. Furthermore, she gives the precedent of the merciful decisions made by the father of her husband i.e. King Henry VII, who had been praised by the Queen father. These lines reflect the internal conflict prevailing in the breast of the Queen, who was selected be the daughter-in-law by King Henry VII. Here appears the slight satire on the Tudor family, the kings of which had been notorious for ruthless and merciless decisions for their personal benefits and gains. Not only this that the monologue expresses the feelings of the Queen, but also the emotions rising in the heart of the King as a result of the sorrowful words delivered by the Queen. In addition, the courtiers’ reaction could also be found when the Queen includes the evidence of high Heavens regarding her services to the King. It also looks evident that some of the courtiers have also sympathies towards the begging Queen, as well as the opposition from a large number of them due to winning the favours of the King. Hence, the social aspects of the politics of that era can also be observed by going through the monologue minutely. Another monologue, described in the Shakespearean tragedy “King Henry VIII” is attributed to the Duke of Buckingham, who becomes the victim of the Cardinal Wolsey’s conspiracies against him. But he faces all infliction and stripping of his position quite gracefully. Being the supporter of the Queen Catherine of Aragon, he is also target of the King’s wrath and anger. But he accepts all humiliation in a highly eloquent and graceful manner. His monologue also reveals the conflict prevailing in his mind, where he expresses his deep grief on being prey to the nefarious conspiracies designed and devised by the court intriguer Cardinal Wolsey against him. His sad tone reveals his anger on being declared as traitor and the enemy of the royal family. The monologue also discloses the political scenario under which the speaker has been leading his life. In addition, the monologue expresses inner conflict of the Duke of Buckingham, where he says: “Yet I am richer than my base accusers, That never knew what truth meant: I now seal it; And with that blood will make 'em one day groan for't” (Act II, Scene I) In addition, the monologue attributed to the second wife of the King i.e. Anne Boleyn also shows her guilt on causing the kicking out of the Queen Catherine of Aragon, which reveals her personality traits as well as the inner guilt through which she had been undergoing. Her feelings on not being able to produce male heir to the throne also shows her inner conflict and mental disturbance. Shakespeare’s monologue creating is not confined to his play “King Henry VIII” only; rather, his other comedies and tragedies also contain monologues. His exceptional tragedy under the title “Hamlet” starts with the ghost’s monologue and ends with the monologue. Particularly the Horatio’s address to Prince Fortinbras at the eve of the death of Prince Hamlet is really noteworthy. Furthermore, Shakespeare’s “Julius Caesar” also draws out the wonderful monologue addressed by Caesar’s close aide Antony after Caesar’s murder at the hands of Brutus discloses the conspiracy well-knitted by Brutus and his associates, which led to the ultimate end of Julius Caesar at the ‘ides of March’. He reveals the names of the intriguers in such a sonorous way: “I doubt not of your wisdom. Let each man render me his bloody hand: First, Marcus Brutus, will I shake with you; Next, Caius Cassius, do I take your hand; Now, Decius Brutus, yours: now yours, Metellus; Yours, Cinna; and, my valiant Casca, yours; Though last, not last in love, yours, good Trebonius. Gentlemen all,--alas, what shall I say? My credit now stands on such slippery ground, That one of two bad ways you must conceit me, Either a coward or a flatterer.”(Quoted in http://shakespeare.mit.edu/julius_caesar/full.html) The above lines describe the grief and apathy of Antony and other faithful aides of Caesar, and divulge the names of the conspirators one by one. Antony condemns and censures the intriguers in such thunderous tone that these words bring tears into the eyes of the listeners. In addition, the words delivered in Antony’s historical speech also show the conflict within his bosom on not being able to save his master and king i.e. Julius Caesar. The monologues written during ancient times as well as in Elizabethan era were limited to the royal families, warriors and commanders only, and common man served only employees and courtiers of the protagonist characters. But the Romantic Era gave new meaning to it and included common man too as the subject matter of the poems. Renowned Romantic poet of natural beauties i.e. William Wordsworth has also expressed his feelings through dramatic monologues. Written in anisometric verse, his poem “Ode: Intimations of Immortality” explores the philosophic theme that most of man’s achievements are the outcome of his learning and experiences have been taken place in past. The long monologue articulates how man’s childhood gives birth to the deepest of philosophies he produces in his later years: “ Thou, whose exterior semblance doth belie          Thy soul's immensity; Thou best philosopher, who yet dost keep Thy heritage, thou eye among the blind, That, deaf and silent, read'st the eternal deep, Haunted for ever by the eternal mind,--          Mighty prophet! Seer blest!          On whom those truths do rest, Which we are toiling all our lives to find, In darkness lost, the darkness of the grave;” (Wordsworth: quoted in daypoems.net) The later Romantics including Shelley and Keats have also produced dramatic monologues in their works. Shelley’s “To a Skylark” (1820) and “Ode to the Western Wind” (1819) serve as precious asset in the list of dramatic monologues of English Literature. Written in five cantos in Iambic literary form his Ode to the Western Wind narrates the passion of the author regarding serving his country at the critical moment when England was at the brink of the war. Since Shelley was in Italy at that time, he expresses his deep grief on not being able to help his country, but sends his utmost feelings through this wonderful monologue: “Of some fierce Mænad, even from the dim verge Of the horizon to the zenith's height, The locks of the approaching storm. Thou Dirge Of the dying year, to which this closing night Will be the dome of a vast sepulchre, Vaulted with all thy congregated might Of vapours, from whose solid atmosphere Black rain, and fire, and hail will burst: oh, hear!” (Shelly, 1819: quoted in enotes.com/ode-west-wind) The youngest and the most romantic poet of the same era i.e. John Keats has also discussed his views by elaborating the beauties of nature in a magnificent mode. All of his odes are delicate in impression and sweetest in theme. His “Ode to a Nightingale” reveals the heartiest emotions related to escape from the bitter realities of life. Though it is a fabulous impression of the poet’s love for liberty, freedom and beauties, yet the depression and dejection of the poet can be witnessed while going through the poem. “My heart aches, and a drowsy numbness pains     My sense, as though of hemlock I had drunk, Or emptied some dull opiate to the drains     One minute past, and Lethe-wards had sunk: 'Tis not through envy of thy happy lot,     But being too happy in thine happiness”,- (Ode to a Nightingale, lines 1-6: englishhistory.net) Keats’ magical spell of the imagination and diction is not confined to one monologue only. The poet longs for the serene place of peace and tranquillity in his other monologues including Ode to Grecian Urn and other poems too—all of which pose the literary achievements made by Keats while creating dramatic monolgues: Ah, happy, happy boughs! that cannot shed Your leaves, nor ever bid the Spring adieu; And, happy melodist, unwearied,   For ever piping songs for ever new; More happy love! more happy, happy love! (Lines 21-25: quoted in bartleby.com) The master of dramatic monologue and renowned poet of Victorian Age i.e. Robert Browning has described almost the same historical situation in his dramatic monologues particularly Fra Lippo Lippi and My Last Duchess, which had been the main theme and subject matter of ancient Greek an Elizabethan poets and authors. While analyzing his poem My Last Duchess, it is obvious that the poem contains objectivity in its articulation, argument and structure. There are no personal feelings included in the poem which belong to the poet; rather, the poem has a hidden message behind it which proves it the part of Puritan's campaign of preaching morality through their creative works. The poem My Last Duchess has been produced in the form of twenty-eight rhythmic couplets containing pentameter in its lines that make a symphonic and melodious tone in style and diction. The poem reflects in an ironical way how could a Duke perceive about his dead wife. He has least care of the respectable aristocratic origin and supreme stratum she belonged to, and precious dowry she brought along with her at the eve of marriage. Rather, he displays his own pride by giving her 'so called nine hundred years old family name' on which she should have been grateful to the Duke. Thus, the poem reveals the psychology of the nobility and the clergy enjoying an over whelming percentage of wealth, resources and opportunities. The class consciousness prevailed for centuries among the British as well as other European nations, and both men and women considered their family superior in social eloquence and position. Eighteenth and nineteenth century writers and poets have especially indicated towards this reality. Henrik Ibsen's play Hedda Gabler (1890) also portrays the same where the protagonist character i.e. Hedda considers her in-laws as inferior to her in rank, and socio-economic position. My Last Duchess illustrates the characteristics of the mode applied in the poem and the humiliating attitude of the Duke of Ferrara towards his wives in the same manner as described the King’s attitude towards Katherine of Aragon by Shakespeare in his “King Henry VIII”: “Somehow - I know not how - as if she ranked My gift of a nine-hundred-years-old name With anybody's gift. Who'd stoop to blame This sort of trifling? Even had you skill In speech - (which I have not) - to make your will Quite clear to such a one, and say, "Just this Or that in you disgusts me; here you miss Or there exceed the mark"- and if she let Herself be lessoned so, nor plainly set” (My Last Duchess: Lines 32-40) The satire regarding the dead duchess's character can also be found in the poem, where she had relations with so many suitors around her, as the poem reveals. She had: “A heart - how shall I say? - Too soon made glad, Too easily impressed: she liked whate'er She looked on, and her looks went everywhere.” (My Last Duchess: Lines 21-24) “The great achievement of Robert Browning (1812-1889) was to break away from the post Keatsian handling of sensory images and bring back to a colloquial vigour to English poetry.” (Daiches 1997, 1002) The bitter theme in the dramatic monologue is usually concealed behind the flowery words full of satire and irony, which can easily be examined by studying a poem in an analytical way. My Last Duchess is also a true example of Browning's dramatic monologue. Satire is an imperative form of literary genres which point out the social injustices, hypocrisy and meanness being adopted by the individuals. The people always try to draw out faults of others forgetting their own blunders and shortcomings of both character and personality. The same is the case with the poem My Last Duchess. Created in 1842, the poem My Last Duchess is a satire on the hypocritical attitude of the so called civilized society and its prevailing norms of 16th century. The poem refers to the prevailing norms, values and practices in the aristocratic culture by sketching the sixteenth century historical event regarding the Duke of Ferrara named Alfonso, revealing the inside views and thoughts of nobles and dukes of that time. Since there is one speaker in Browning's dramatic monologue, the Duke himself is the speaker in this poem who is communicating with an emissary in respect of his new marriage prospects to a well known family of the elite class. The poem reveals the very fact that the last wife of the Duke has recently died and the communication between the two is taking place beside the picture of the departed soul. Though his wife has recently died, yet the Duke has no mercy towards her even after her death. Another dramatic monologue, created by Robert Browning in 1855 under the title “Fra Lippo Lippi”, also serves as a great satire on the prevailing social discrimination during 16th to 19th century England. Browning, through the words of 15th century painter Lippo Lippi, has mocked real characters of the so called religious community, which spends its time is revelries and merry-making, and their religious cloak provided them with the shelter and security. The poem expresses conflict between the religious belief and ethical values on the one hand, and normal and routine life activities of the monks and priests on the other. The poem shows the power of the clergy in 15th and 16th century, where no one could gather courage to humiliate the clergy, even finding them getting indulged into immoral activities. The arguments made by Fra Lippo Lippi express how much dissimilarity exists between his character and profession. Moreover, instead of getting ashamed of his being found in the area of prostitutes, Fra audaciously supports his immorality in front of the policemen. “I drew men's faces on my copy-books, Scrawled them within the antiphonary's marge, Joined legs and arms to the long music-notes, Found eyes and nose and chin for A's and B's, And made a string of pictures of the world Betwixt the ins and outs of verb and noun, On the wall, the bench, the door. The monks looked black. "Nay," quoth the Prior, "turn him out, d'ye say”? (Lines 129-136: retrieved from http://faculty.stonehill.edu/geverett/rb/lippo.htm) Hence, instead of advocating regarding his innocence, Fra argues in favour of the malpractices and convinces the police to respect the clergy and let them involve into revelries against the religious services the clergy has been rendering for the welfare of society at large. Unlike Shakespeare, Robert Browning’s canvas is not restricted to royal and religious communities only. On the contrary, the life of common man is also the central theme of his monologues. His “Last Ride Together” emphasises upon the sheer feelings and passion of a true lover for her beloved. The wonderful monologue depicts how the lover surrenders her unabated love provided the beloved gets agree to go on last ride with the lover. Each and every word of the long monologue is as pure as pure gold and depicts the skill of the poet while revealing the pain and conflict rising in the heart of the lover: “My whole heart rises up to bless Your name in pride and thankfulness! Take back the hope you gave--I claim Only a memory of the same, --And this beside, if you will not blame, Your leave for one more last ride with me.” (Last Ride Together: Lines 6-11) The monologue not only reflects the deepest feelings of love, but also shows how a true lover surrenders his love for the sake of the beloved. The complete story has been summed up in few lines, where when the beloved put her head on his chest during the ride, he feels if the sun, moon and stars have been put on his chest i.e. if he had got every blessings from high heaven: “Hush! if you saw some western cloud All billowy-bosomed, over-bowed By many benedictions--sun's And moon's and evening-star's at once-- And so, you, looking and loving best, Conscious grew, your passion drew Cloud, sunset, moonrise, star-shine too, Down on you, near and yet more near, Till flesh must fade for heaven was here!-- Thus leant she and lingered--joy and fear! Thus lay she a moment on my breast” (Lines 23-33: readbookonline.net) The lover, in this poem, is well aware of the very reality that he has not won the heart of the lady, and both of them will part soon, yet he is delighted to note that this time she is riding at his side. The conflict has been concealed under the pile of his temporary delight. But the poet has skilfully portrayed his inner, where there is agony, disappointment and sorrow haunts him in a dreadful way. REFERENCES: Browning, Robert. (1848) Last Ride Together (Quoted in http://www.readbookonline.net/readOnLine/2835/) Browning, Robert. (1842) My Last Duchess Lines 32-40 (Retrieved from http://mason.gmu.edu/~lsmithg/275duchess.htm) Browning, Robert. (1855) Fra Lippo Lippi Cowper, William (2008) The Iliad and Odyssey of Homer Printed and published by Joseph T. Buckingham, 1814 Harvard University p 257 Daiches, David (1997) The History of English Literature Chand Publications New Delhi pp 990-1020 Graves, Robert. (1964) The Greek Myths-I. 3rd Edition. Penguin Books Keats, John. (1817) Ode to a Nightingale (Retrieved from http://www.bartleby.com/126/41.html) Lindow, George P. Dramatic Monologue: An Introduction (Quoted in http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/rb/dm1.html) Shakespeare, Sir William. (1602) King Henry VIII (Quoted in http://www.rhymezone.com/r/gwic.cgi?Word=_&Path=shakespeare/histories/kinghenryviii/ii_iv//) Shakespeare, Sir William. (1599) Julius Caesar (Retrieved from http://shakespeare.mit.edu/julius_caesar/full.html) Shurin, Aaron. (1984) Homer’s The Iliad Barron’s Educational series pp 29-39 Sophocles Oedipus Rex the King (Retrieved from http://www.online-literature.com/sophocles/oedipus/1/) Sophocles Oedipus Rex the King (Quoted in http://www.enotes.com/oedipus-rex-text/oedipus-rex?start=4) Wordsworth, William. (1802) Ode: Intimations of Immortality (Quoted in http://www.daypoems.net/poems/488.html Read More