The Relationship between Migration and Sexual Health - Essay Example

A Report on Migration and Sexual Health of African Migrants in the United Kingdom 18th April, Executive summary This paper will provide a critical review on the relationship between migration and sexual health. In the first part, the report provides a brief preview on the issues of migration and integration in the UK in relation to African migrants. In relation to the specific questions, that the report is designed to cover it was noted that in the first phase of migration, African migrants tend to greatly explore their sexuality, taking advantage of the democratic freedom in the UK, which ultimately endangers their own sexual health. Pertaining to the second question, the report has established that MSM are more prone to acquiring STIs than their heterosexual partners because unprotected anal intercourse presents more chances of acquire STIs than virginal intercourse. On the third question, it has been conclusively noted that the sexual and reproductive health of African migrants is gendered in its effects because men have more powers and privileges over the sexuality and reproduction of their female partners. Table of Contents 1.0 Introduction 3 1.1 The United Kingdom’s immigration and integration policies 5 1.2 Migration and integration experience of African migrants in the UK 6 2.0 Impact of migration on sexual health 8 3.0 Why migrant men-who-have-sex-with-men are at more risk of acquiring STIs than their heterosexual counterpart 10 4.0 The gender disparity in the sexual and reproductive health of African migrants in the UK 12 5.0 Conclusion 13 References 14 1.0 Introduction This present report is primarily based on the topics of migration and sexual health. In the context of the report, the term ‘migration’ will be used to refer to the movement of people from one region to another while the term ‘sexual health’ will be used to refer to the “state of mental, physical, emotional, and social well-being of a person in terms of sexuality (Rutter and Schwartz, 2012) and (Crooks and Baur, 2014). In order to broaden the understanding of the topic area it is important to note that the term ‘sexuality’ refers to the sexual habits and desires of a person. The study on migration and sexual health cuts across as unique in the field of academics because not so many studies have been dedicated to look into the relation of migration and sexual health. In particular, this present study will look at the migration of Africans from various African countries into the United Kingdom. It is important to note that over the past years dating back to the late part of the 20th century, there has been a continued increase of African migrants drawn from various countries into the United Kingdom. According to Spencer (2010), this trend of migration has been promoted by the fact that UK is perceived to be a greener pasture for the African migrants who believe they can easily secure well paying jobs in the country, and gain access to quality education. However, Arthur et al. (2012) added that some African migrants opted to migrate to the UK as asylum seekers in order to evade the hostile political environment that is normally associated with numerous African countries. This study on migration and sexual health will focus on three critical areas but first it will highlight on the immigration and integration policies of the UK and the experience of migration and integration for African migrants in the UK. In the main body of the report, the first the section will provide a discussion on the impact of migration on sexual health of migrants. Secondly, the study will discuss the reasons as to why migrant men-who-have-sex with men are at more risk of acquiring sexually transmitted diseases than their heterosexual counterparts. Thirdly, the study will focus on whether the sexual and reproductive health of migrants is gendered in its effects. 1.1 The United Kingdom’s immigration and integration policies In the writings by Kupiszewski (2013), he wrote that the UK has a well elaborate immigration policy that provide legal guidance as to who is permissible to enter as well as remain within the UK boarders. The immigration policy has grouped migrants into two broad categories that comprise of people seeking for asylum since their home countries present to them dangers in various forms. The second group of migrants comprise of those people who are simply migrating into the country to take advantage of the economic and educational benefits offered by the UK. With references to the writings by Spencer (2010), he stated that as much as the UK wishes to attract more people into the country in order to invest, work, and study, it has also placed stringent migration polices in order to limit the migration of non-citizens of European countries and even minimize the illegal use of migration routes. Under the migration policies, the common visa requirements is that a migrant should prove his health status/ condition, financial status and provide valid reason as to why he or she is seeking entry into the country. In regards to the integration policy, Kupiszewski (2013) stated that in the UK there is no precise or a particular legal policy framework on integration. However, there are integration policies, which cover a particular category of migrant refugees and migrants who are seeking for permanent stay in the UK. In particular, Arthur et al. (2012) mentioned that there are certain policies that could be interpreted as integration policies since they seek to protect against discrimination and they promote community cohesion within the UK. Other factors that can be interpreted as integration policy include the service of English language tuition and the customized health and educations services that are designed to cater for the needs of particular migrants. According to Arthur et al. (2012), the history of integration policy within the UK can be traced back to the 1960’s when there was a major inflow of migrants originating from the countries that had joined the newly formed Commonwealth. The policy during this time aimed at addressing the discrimination and racial hatred that was directed towards this new group of migrants and it simply aimed at creating an environment where there was tolerance. Summarily, it is correct to state that the UK’s migration policy is stringent more so for non-citizens of the European countries as it seeks to limit the entry of non-EU migrants. However, despite of the fact that there is no national policy framework on integration there are measures in place to ensure that migrants have a wonderful experience in the integration process. 1.2 Migration and integration experience of African migrants in the UK Chothia (2013) wrote that the new spirited fight against migrants in the UK has increasingly made it difficult for African-born migrants staying the UK. Chothia (2013) sited an example whereby the UK Home Office commissioned vans that drove within the boroughs in London that had cultural diverse population and this vans had images of handcuffs along with the message “in the UK illegally? Go home or face arrest.” This campaign by the UK’s Home Office elicited negative reactions until it was withdrawn but it created a hostile environment for migrants especially for African-born migrants. Moreover, this pointed out to the possibility that African migrants find it had to integrate in the UK merely because they feel unwanted as the present immigration laws are largely focusing on limiting migrants from non-EU member states. A report published by the Joseph Rowntree Foundation stated that the integration of migrants in the UK is at times hampered by the tension caused by competition of limited resources with the locals, which at times result to radicalization and discrimination. In regards to the migration experience for African-born migrants, the writings by Spencer (2010) suggested that they normally have a very unpleasant experience because of the fact that the stringent migration policies seems to target them the most as compared to migrants from EU-member states. For instance, Mr. Tom Bursnall who is a member of the United Kingdom Independence Party (UKIP) was quoted staying that “it is far difficult for a well-trained Namibian or Nigerian doctor to gain access into the country as compared to a murderer or rapist from Eastern Europe.” However, despite the unfavorable migration and integration experience of African migrants in the UK there has been an increase in the number of African migrants in the UK between the periods of 2001 to 2011. In particular, majority of African Migrants in the UK originate from countries that were formerly colonized by the Britain. The table below summarizes the migration trends from four Key African countries that were colonized by Britain. Table 1: African-born residents in England and Wales between 2001 to 2011 Retrieved from: http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-25111177 The table shows that there is an overall increase in the number of African migrants, which depicts that the UK offers irresistible economic charm to the migrants despite them having bad experiences on migration and integration. 2.0 Impact of migration on sexual health The UK is generally a democratic country where people are allowed to full exercise their rights and freedoms, which go as far as their dressing and manner of social behaviors as long as it is not a violation of the law. As such, migrants experience a new level of freedom when they arrive to the UK more so if they are from countries where there are strong adherences to cultural norms and/ or where the extent of democracy is somehow limited. For example, migrants from the African countries where there is strong adherence to traditional and cultural beliefs that in a great way tend to dictate the dressing style, manner of social behavior of the African people, as well as their sexuality, experience a new level of freedom that they are not accustomed to when they arrive to the UK. Therefore, with the newfound freedom some migrants tend to exploit their adventure in the UK by dressing the way they would wish, and behaving in a manner that they would not back at their home country. In a research study that was conducted by Mole et al. (2014), the response that was obtained from the respondents indicated that the sexual behavior of migrants in the UK is greatly influenced by the migration process. This is majorly because the UK provides them a great extent of freedom vis-à-vis the traditional systems of social control that is back at their home country and hence, the migrants tend to have increased sexual activities, more so during their first phase of migration into the UK. Mole et al. (2014) further added that migrants tend to explore new sexual adventures and even engage in risky sexual behaviors, which endanger their sexual health. For example, because of the strict social controls and adherence to strong cultural practices in Africa, most gay Africans may remain in the closet for as long as they can but once they migrate to the UK, the extent of freedom that is available allows them to come out of the closet and thereby explore their sexuality. Secondly, the research study conducted by Mole et al. (2014) noted that male African migrants tend to exploit the services of commercial sex workers in their first phase of migration because of the fact that they might have not migrated with their partners and also because there is no one around in the foreign country to judge them. This engagement in risky sexual behaviors by the migrants tends to endanger their sexual health. Thirdly, Mole et al. (2014) stated that most African migrants tend to have a perception that sexual risk in the UK is low mainly because of low prevalence of HIV/ Aids as well as other sexually transmitted diseases unlike most African countries. Based on this perception, most of African migrants tend to engage in risky sexual activities that endanger their sexual health. The figure below indicates the number of people who were living in the UK with in the year 2012, both diagnosed and undiagnosed. Of particular interest is the number of African-born men and women who were HIV positive, and the table indicates that the number of African-born men living with HIV was equal to the number of non-African born men living with HIV but the number of African-born women living with HIV was more than the number of non-African-born women. This statics affirms that indeed migration has an impact on the sexual health of migrants, as they tend to engage in risky sexual behaviors. Table 2: Estimated number of people living with HIV in UK in 2012 (diagnosed and undiagnosed) Source: Public Health England (http://www.hpa.org.uk/webc/HPAwebFile/HPAweb_C/1317140300680) 3.0 Why migrant men-who-have-sex-with-men are at more risk of acquiring STIs than their heterosexual counterpart It is first important to note the fact that men-who-have-sex-with-other-men (MSM) are the highest causalities of the HIV pandemic in the UK. This fact is substantiated by the findings that were presented in the previous section on table 2, which showed that the highest numbers of people who have been diagnosed with HIV in the UK are MSM. Additionally, the table noted that even the numbers of the people who have not yet been diagnosed with HIV in the UK but are living with it are the MSM. This affirms the fact that MSM are at more risk of acquiring sexually transmitted diseases unlike their heterosexual partners. In the writings by Boskey (2014), she stated that the rate of HIV among the gays is at a consistent level across the World and at times ranges or fluctuates in range of 2% to 5%. Although, there was a slight decline in the past decade due to increased sensitization, this has changed in the recent years since the incidence rate of HIV among the gays has spiraled up again. Boskey (2014) attributed this trend of HIV infection amongst the gays to social, biological, and behavioral factors. In the studies conducted by Beyrer et al. (2012), they identified one of these factors by attributing the high incidences of HIV among MSM to the fact that the average rate of HIV transmission is remarkably high at 18 times during anal sex than during vaginal intercourse. This is worsened by the fact that the risk of HIV acquisition during unprotected act of anal sex is estimated to be at 1.4% (Boskey, 2014). Therefore, based on this finding it is correct to assert that migrant MSM are at more risk of acquiring STIs that their heterosexual counterparts because there are high chances of HIV transmission during anal sex that during vaginal intercourse. Secondly, the writings by Millett et al. (2012) attributed the fact that migrant MSM could be at more risk of acquiring STIs unlike their heterosexual counterparts because it has been proven that the role variability of MSM heightens their risk of acquiring STIs. This is to mean that men who engage in receptive unprotected anal sex tend to be at a higher risk of acquiring HIV same as men who engage in insertive unprotected anal sex, which means the combined acts of MSM during unprotected anal sex, exposes them to greater risk of acquiring HIV. Thirdly, the studies conducted by Millett et al. (2012) attributed the possible higher risk of STIs among migrant MSM as compared to their heterosexual partners to the homophobia that still exist in larger parts of the UK. In addition, there are still other numerous forms of social and legal discrimination that is directed against MSM, which makes it hard for them to access health care and even get necessary information to practice safe sex. This discrimination against MSM discourage them from going to early HIV testing and treatment unlike heterosexuals who have easy access to health care facilities. With reference to the writings by Brigantes (2012), he particularly noted that the high risk of HIV infection among African migrants is attributed to the fact that their social circle is limited to the black community in the UK. Therefore, with the high incident rate of HIV amongst the Black community there is usually a high risk of infection for the migrants. 4.0 The gender disparity in the sexual and reproductive health of African migrants in the UK The research study conducted by Higgins et al. (2010) presented a vulnerability paradigm in which it is basically noted that women are more vulnerable in terms of HIV acquisition than men. The main idea presented within the research study is that female African migrants are more susceptible to sexual health risks as compared to male African migrants. According to the Higgins et al. (2010), the vulnerability paradigm indicates that women are more at risk in terms of their sexual health because of the obvious biological differences with men that makes them likely victims of sexual abuse cases. Secondly, it is correct to state that the sexual health of African women who are migrants is at more risk because women have low sexual autonomy and therefore, at times they do not have a say in the way they are going to engage in sexual activities with their male counterparts. Thirdly, men’s sexual privileges and power make women disadvantaged and susceptible to sexual health risk from their male counterparts. Based on these findings, Higgins et al. (2010) assumed that men are active transmitters of the HIV virus and they do not partake in the active prevention of HIV transmission. Additionally, the vulnerability paradigms states that despite the fact that women have the desire to prevent HIV transmission they lack the power to enforce terms of engagement with the male counterparts especially male African migrants who still hold to strong cultural values that expect women to be submissive to men. Because of this reason, it was concluded that in most cases it is men who bring HIV to the partnership, although this is subject to validation by empirical evidence. In regards to reproductive health, it is equally noted that women have less control over their reproductive health since men have more sexual privileges and power, which makes them to have autonomy over the reproductive health of their female partners. With reference to the writings by Van Look et al. (2011), it is noted that the African culture gives men greater power to dictate the reproduction of the African women, as in when to give birth and even the method for family planning to use. Therefore, it is correct to state that the sexual and reproductive health of migrants in gendered in its effects. 5.0 Conclusion This present report has presented a critical study that highlights on the relationship between migration and sexual health in the context of the UK and with particular focus on the African migrants. In the first part of the report, it was noted that UK has stringent migration and integration policies that seemingly appear to discourage the migration of citizens of non-EU member states into the UK, additionally, African migrants have had unpleasant experience in regards to migration and integration in the UK. However, despite of all these, the number of African migrants migrating to the UK have continued to steadily rise in the past years, perhaps indicating that UK provided African migrants with irresistible opportunities. On the main questions, it can be conclusively stated that migration affect the sexual health of African migrants as they tend to exercise their sexual freedom in the democratic space that is available in the UK and during the first phase of migration this might go to an extent of endangering the sexual health of the African migrants. On the second question, it was noted that various factors contribute to MSM being at more risk of contracting STIs than their heterosexual partners mainly because of the fact that unprotected anal intercourse presents more chances of STIs transmission than vaginal intercourse. On the third question, it is conclusively noted that the sexual and reproductive health of African migrants is gendered in its effects, more so because the African culture gives men greater dominance over women and therefore, women have reduced autonomy over their sexual and reproductive health. References Arthur, J. A., Takougang, J., & Owusu, T. Y. (2012). 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The migration debate. Bristol, Policy Press. The Joseph Rowntree Foundation (2013). Migrants, Integration and Local Neighbourhoods: Fresh Evidence From Three Studies. Retrieved from: http://www.jrf.org.uk/media-centre/migrants-integration-and-local-neighbourhoods-fresh-evidence-three-new-studies. Accessed on [17.04.2014] Van Look, P., Heggenhougen, K., & Quah, S. R. (2011). Sexual and Reproductive Health a Public Health Perspective. Burlington, Elsevier Science. Read More