International Migration and Development - Essay Example

International Migration and Development Introduction The intensity of the rate and magnitude of migration across the globe over the past decade has caught the attention of the policy makers, academic enthusiasts and scholars. It also has been affected by the intricate transformation in perspective from the mainstream pessimistic approach to the issue to a rather optimistic approach. This sudden change of heart falls in the face of widespread scepticism on the subject thereby generating remarkable research and discussion. The association between the remittance flows and income distribution has gained credence over the years as the amount of revenue remitted to developing countries increases. Effectively remittances have become a means to poverty reduction, income distribution and most importantly economic growth. For the longest time, the topic of migration was discussed from a pessimistic perspective of brain drain resource exploitation. The trend has gradually transformed into a transnational oriented investment strategy with potential investors moving to acquire new ground in new territory where investment opportunities are friendlier. The empirical evidence that has been generously accumulated over the years places the spotlight on the sheer heterogeneous nature of migration development based results of the sending countries and communities. This has specifically had a forestalling effect on any prospective development interactions of migration. Similarly, this has created great disconnect between past and present discussion debate and research on the topic. The rising need for information on the potential economically viable perspectives of migration shows just how conservative past debate has been on the subject (Castles & Miller 140). The starting point for the majority of the immigration theories are on three main levels of analysis that circle around autonomy, political-economic-cultural structures and social and symbolic ties. The two major levels are the micro and macro levels that embody the above mentioned qualities. The micro level interrogates the decision making potential of the individual the power and influence associated with the choice. The macro level on the other hand has a rather diverse approach taking a multi factor approach. It makes consideration of the political-economic-cultural structures as significations of the factors affecting the rate, reason and timing of immigration. Migration Theories and Perspectives Among the numerous theories that claim to have a proper reason as to why people migrate there has been none that has been scientifically accepted as the true explanation of the emergence and perpetration of migration across the globe (Massey et al 7). Some lean towards the more rational micro approach while others the institutional approach (Brettell & Hollifield 7). The earliest of scholarly contribution to the topic of migration suggest that it is an inseparable part of development and that the movement is fundamentally economically driven. The patterns are then suggested to vary depending on factors such as distance and population density. Effectively the majority of persons involved in the migration process will move from low income areas to low income zones and from densely populated areas. This spatial economic equilibrium approach has since influenced a variety of other macro and micro oriented theoretical approaches to the subject (Massey 14). Despite the fact that the association between the mainstream economic theory and the issue of migration is on arms length basis, the greater proportion of the research has been dwarfed by international trade agenda and macroeconomic policies (Human Development Report 11). Micro theories have in their part fail to acknowledge the role of domestic and international flows (Brettell & Hollifield 10). At the macro level, the explanation adopted by the neoclassical theory of migration leans towards the lack of fit between the demand and supply of labour. The particular inconsistencies in the wages receivable to the workers motivate their movement from low wage, labour surplus regions to areas with a higher wage and with scarcity of labour (Castles & Delagdo 103). Subsequently the sending country suffers a reduction in the level of labour available and disposable while the receiving country receives the surplus. Interestingly, the flow of capital occurs in the directly opposite direction. In economic theory, this is described as factor price equalisation which culminates in a balance in the supply and demand of labour in the sending and receiving ends of the migration process. The long run effect is that the economic motivation behind migration slowly deteriorates and the migration process recedes in equal or greater proportion (Castles & Delagdo 21). At the micro level, the cost benefit argument is perpetrated by the neoclassical school of thought as the motivation behind the movement of immigrants who are perceived as individual, rational actors with the capacity to make an analysis of cost over benefits. In the prevalence of free will and choice, they are perceived to move to the most productive and profitable regions to be able to earn the highest wages. This movement is said to be affected by the quality and level of individual’s skills and the structure of the labour markets. The general outfit of the neoclassical theory is anchored on the notion that migration is a consistent part of the basic development process and as such the rural sector supplies the urban regions with labour. It is a widely accepted definition that economic development and material progress involves gradual and timely transfer of economic agents from rural populations and traditional agriculture systems to an industrialized urban manufacturing sector. The neoclassical explanation of the cause of migration is rooted on the developmentalist, modernisation theory that is based on teleological approach to the interpretation of development in a linear manner. The contest of pinions on the proper framework of migration has given rise to new alternate and exiting schools of thought as the quest to unify the theories continues (Massey et al 16). A more radical approach is suggested by the historical-structural which is inspired by the Marxist school of thought postulates that any such political and economic autonomy, power is often unequally distributed among the developed and the under developed countries. Subsequently, people have an unequal level of access to resources and the inequality is replenished by the capitalist tendencies. Instead of making progress towards economic development the developing countries are trapped by the disadvantage within the global political structure. This dependency approach suggests that the effect of immigration on developing countries is retrogressive, and in a particular sense it is to blame for the underdevelopment of these countries. This approach suggests that immigration is more of an adjustment to the capitalist environment since the individuals are not seen to have any choice due the constraint of structural forces rather than free will. According to this approach the flow of capital is similar to that of labour due to the strong relationship between the capitalist market and the flow of labour. Therefore, labour will move towards capital intensive areas and the immigrants bring along investors and capital. Due to this movement the rural population is deprived of livelihood. This theory is seen to go quite contrary to the micro level approach to the interpretation of the immigration question. It is apparent that a review of both micro and macro level theories shows a disregard for the relational nature of all other decision making dynamics of the migrants. Micro theoretical approaches conceive individuals or households as homogenous decision making entities. For instance, there exists empirical research that suggests that the actual immigration decision is made at the clan and kinship levels. However, it is common ground among scholars that in one way or the other, immigration is related or associated with development and that is caused by economically driven factors. Consequences Different Forms of Migration A keen interrogation of migration of individuals across states suggests that there are pertinent consequences of such human movement. These are easily identified through an evaluation of the costs over the benefits associated with the movement of societies. However, this calculation is a meticulous balance between the social and the economic costs of the migration. To begin with the economic costs are rather simplistic identification and calculation since they are dictated through data and statistics collected at national local and regional levels. The methods are diverse ranging from censuses to income and expenditure surveys. Social costs on the other hand, present serious identification and quantification challenges. The costs and benefits are outweighed against each other to establish the actual net benefit or loss that accrues form the movement of the society. The costs and benefits will vary with the individual receiving or sending societies since the sending society normally incurs more social economic costs, as opposed to the receiving country. These however could be different depending on the nature of the migration Castles, (Stephen & Miller 102). The net effects on a country will also be different if the migration is short term or long-term. It also depends on the nature of the contribution that the migrating persons had been making to the affected country. In effect, it is only possible to categorize these effects based on the method of evaluation as follows. Demographic Consequences The movement of people at a high rate from a given area greatly affects the size structure and general growth patterns of the population. Further the influx of people in a certain area also disorients the population structure of the area the people settle in. Further, the absence of a certain gender in the society due to the migration also impedes population growth in the sending country and increases the population growth rate in the receiving country if the migration is long term in nature. Social Consequences The migration process causes the movement and position of cultural and social setups such as families and communities. This is due to the entry of aliens who are assimilated into the cultures and social setups of the receiving country but influence the local community’s cultures. To the sending country the exportation of the community members reduces the number of people who pass on the culture to their children. As a result, it slowly dies out and leaches out into the new cultures (Castles & Delagdo 216). Economic Consequences The impression on the economic structure and outlook is inevitably significant since the migration process is fuelled by the economic agenda. The migrants bring economic activity to the country they settle in hence increasing the general growth index. The migrants bring in news skills leading to the expansion of the various fields of interest due to the increased supply of skilled labour (Castles & Delagdo 207). This has a ripple effect on the economy and the performance of the country benefitting from the labour. Political Consequences To begin with the governments of the sending and receiving counties have to enact policies to control and supervise the migration process to ensure that it is a healthy and controlled movement. Further, depending on the type of migration the government will also have to make arrangements for the inclusion of the migrants into the social benefits as well as the political benefits that accrue to any resident of the country. Health Consequences Migrants have been known to pass on dangerous diseases across borders from their home countries. The government therefore needs to make serious considerations on the manner in which the immigrants are to be admitted into the country. They also are bond to suffer mild illnesses due to the adjustment to the new environment. In other cases, the migration leads to an increase in the level of health if the receiving country has better health standards as compared to the sending country. Modelling Consequences Once the migrants enter the country the reviving country is required to set up parameters to account for their immigrants and maintain constant supervision of their activities for compliance with the receiving country’s standards. These are expensive to model acquire and maintain. This cost however is compulsory and must be incurred to ensure that the data used is accurate and up to date. Migration Benefits to Both Nations Though not entirely proven, there exists a valid suggestion that migration can be potentially beneficial to both countries if the migration is for a short term. The migrants who move to other countries temporarily acquire experience end training from the country they move to. Upon return, they bring home their capital and more importantly skill and experience. To the receiving country the migrants offer labour and therefore allow their industries to grow and potentially expand. This will benefit the sending country only if the labourers return (Castles & Delagdo 224). The migration process will also generate potential benefits if the sending country actually has a problem of labour intensity and the migrants are exported as a factor of production at a price. This benefits the migrant and the origin country equally. Recently china has made a rather unique benefit from the migration process by facilitating the exportation of criminals as workers in overseas countries through licensed construction companies. They offer labour to the foreign companies while serving their term. The companies pay revenue to the government for the hired prisoners while the benefiting country received qualified labour. Control and Management Most countries have chosen to adopt an integrative approach to the immigration question. The policy framework in most of these countries however is mostly adhoc and laissez faire due to the distant nature of the issue among many nations. Undeniably every country which participates in the migration process makes a great investment in integration of immigration even if in the indirect form. This is in the form of education, housing, healthcare and social security to the immigrants during their stay in the country. It is only until recently that the United States under the Obama administration has began to have a more particular approach to immigration. The integrative approach to the management and control of immigration has confronted two main challenges. The robust nature of the economy in line with the accelerated global economy has driven the immigrant’s social morbidity upwards. As such the numerous jobs that were available to the less skilled immigrants have since disappeared. From a different perspective the immigrants bargain, which embodies a strong expectation that once in the country, immigrants should become self sufficient as soon as possible with little or no support from the government is an example of the scepticism that the subject has received over the years. However, access to employment is facilitated by the flexible labour market which lucidly assimilates their knowledge and skill to provide a livelihood. The immigrants take a maximum of at s little as 180 days for the completion and processing of their application. The human rights campaign over the past few years has offered a platform for the consideration discussion of the immigration subject. It has led to the formulation of articulate non discrimination laws that ensure that the immigrant’s human rights are safeguarded through legal and quasi legal measures of enforcement. Subsequently immigration laws are meant to safeguard the immigrant’s social and economic exclusion. The success of these legal measures has been made possible through the cooperation and facilitation by government agencies and other interested parties. The adoption of an inclusive education policy is also a bold and supportive step to the provision of a favourable environment to immigrants by not discriminating children of immigrants by virtue of their academic performance (Human Development Report 61). This goes a long way in driving social economic integration of immigrants into the society. The above strategies offer an opportunity for the humane and transformative approach to the issue of immigration. All nations and states should adopt a similar strategy be they receiving or sending states in the migration process. This ensures that the immigration process results in sustainable socioeconomic transformation. On the other hand, it has become apparent that there is a need to control the rate and number of immigrants that are received over a specific period of time. Subsequently the need to limit this number has led to the formulation of strict border management and security that monitors the rate and frequency of immigrants entering a country. Conclusion Different countries on the sending and receiving ends of the migration process have adopted various approaches to the border management issue. Similarly, states have adopted different approaches in the management of illegal border crossings. Some have adopted the physical barrier approach by constructing physical barriers across the territory in the bid to limit the entry of the unrestricted entry of immigrants (Massey 28). This has however been a collective effort between neighbouring states based on their competencies and methods (Human Development Report 5). It is clear that there is a great need of research on an effective and universally acceptable immigrant philosophy to act as a standard setter in the immigration process across nations. Works Cited Brettell, Caroline B. & Hollifield, James F. MigrationTheory: Talking across Disciplines. New York & London: Routledge. 2008. Print Castles Wise & Delagdo, Wise. Migration and Development: Perspectives from the South. Mexico: Universidad Autonoma de Zacatecas. 2007. Print. Castles, Stephen & Miller, Mark J. The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World. New York: Guilford Press. 2009. Print. Human Development Report. Overcoming barriers: Human mobility and development. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. 2009. Print. Massey, Douglas S. et.al. Worlds in Motion: Understanding International Migration at the End of the Millennium, 1998. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Print. Massey, Douglas S. Patterns and Processes of International Migration in the 21st Century. Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania. 1998. Print. Read More