Reading and Learning Disabilities - Research Paper Example

Reading Fluency Reading Fluency Comparison of Silent and Oral Reading Reading is a vital aspect in the evaluation of the learning capabilities of a student. This is especially important in elementary school. By definition, fluency in reading refers to the capacity to read any text accurately, at a suitable speed and with excellent expression (Taylor, 2002). Unlike silent reading, oral reading entails reading audibly enabling the assessment of various aspects such as phonetics and prosody. In oral fluency, the rate of reading plays a vital role. A child or student who reads in disjointedly or slowly reduces the reading into a series of words or phrases making it uninteresting to listen. As such, the rate of reading, a key component of fluency, is significantly imperative in the assessment of fluency (Taylor, 2002). In the past, education systems have focused enhancing the reading skills of children. Nonetheless, fluency has been overlooked. From the research, undertaken, oral reading fluency contributes massively to the understanding and remembering of the important ideas in any text. Silent reading denotes the capacity to read with unrelenting concentration, effortlessness and calm, at an appropriate rate. Since it does not entail reading aloud, articulation is not considered. Silent reading and oral reading are closely related hence, they influence each other. Nevertheless, there are various profound differences in the practice of the two forms reading, and how improve them. The two forms of reading require varied focus. For instance, in oral reading the attention should be primarily on recognizing the text and making suitable oral expression. In addition, the reader should also read at an appropriate rate that maintains the intended meaning of the text by posing or changing audibility (Hasbrouck, 2014). In oral reading, comprehension of the ideas the text articulates become peripheral. Therefore, oral reading of text reduces understanding of the ideas therein. By contrast, silent reading enhances understating of the ideas in a text as the focus is primarily on sustaining concentration. In silent reading, the reader has an opportunity to decode the ideas as he/she reads. Despite the fundamental differences, in the two forms of reading there are similarities. To begin with, fluency under both forms of reading can be graded as per certain set metrics into different levels of fluency. However, the levels vary in both silent and oral reading due to the different parameters employed in the assessment of each form of reading. Based on the existing systems of evaluating, assessment of oral reading involves assessing repetition, regression and deviation (Hasbrouck, 2014). In addition, the evaluation also assesses the ability of the reader to retain the original sentence structure. Lastly, the assessment also evaluates expressive interpretation. Accordingly, only four major level of oral fluency exist. The four categories represent varied performance with regard to the metrics established. For instance, level one denotes a non-fluent oral reader who can only read a text word-by-word. Occasionally, a level one-reader will read in phrases that contain two, three or four word but it is sporadic. A level two reader reads largely in two and three word phrases. Word by word reading is present but minimal. A level three reader is fluent and maintains the text’s syntax. Finally, level four denotes a fluent reader who reads in large consequential phrase groups. Silent reading on the other hand evaluates fixation and regression using camera that record the eye movement. The categories of assessing silent reading though complicated are based on the numbers of fixations and regression recorded by the camera. Reading Comprehension Models Discussing The situation model Reading comprehension has proved to be more complex as compared to listening comprehension primarily due the additional strategies that come into play when undertaking it. In addition, the disparities between the oral and written forms of a language come into play and in particular, the fact that the most compound form of any language is in writing makes reading comprehension more difficult. According to this model, the construction of a psychological form of the text contributes hugely to the success of reading comprehension. As such, the situation model endeavours to incorporate a rundown of the content that the reader can explore when questioned on the ideas in the reading (Oudot, Prevost, & Milgram, 2004). There are several imperative junctures in the development of this model. First, the reader has to decipher the phrases and sentences. Secondly, the model requires the reader to draw out the precise implication of the text. Consequently, the reader has to merge the different themes logically and inference the varying ideas. Finally, the content, extracted from the reading, is activated alongside existing knowledge as the reading continuous. This is a detailed model, which creates a specific path for reading comprehension. Accordingly, it will works for people who have the capacity to read and integrate the information drawn from the text. Despite its complexities, this model is exceedingly successful in enhancing reading comprehension. It is hard for most students to undertake all those steps simultaneously especially with regard to younger children whose cognitive ability is immature. This model would therefore be suitable for mature persons who have reading comprehension difficulties. Activation–Verification Model The activation-verification model also has various steps, which lead to comprehension of any text. It begins with encoding which enables the reader to recall subconsciously the relevant information in the brain, which relates to the reading. Verification brings into play the lexical entry that provides guidance to the previously learnt knowledge, which is relevant to the text. Verification allows an analysis of information in the reader’s memory that helps in the comprehension of the text (Oudot, Prevost & Milgram, 2006). Like the previous model, this is an effective model where the effectiveness of reading comprehension lies in the encoding and verification. The model depend largely on the readers ability to recognize certain word patterns in the text which are related to previously learned knowledge. Therefore, prior knowledge that may relate to the text plays a vital role in comprehension. For this model, reading comprehension will be easier if the reader is familiar with the ideas in the reading. This model has minimal positive results owing to its complex nature, which involves lexical and encoding algorithms. The Cognitive Process’ Role in Reading Disabilities Cognition refers to mental processes such as concentrating, remembering, comprehending, speaking, doing arithmetic, decision-making and applying logics (Sternberg & Sternberg, 2009). The education system seeks to nurture such processes, as they are central to any learning process and mental development. Persons with disabilities will have dysfunctional mental processes. As such, individuals with impaired cognitive processes will have reading disabilities depending on the nature of mental disability. Persons with significant cognitive disabilities will require assistance when undertaking many basic tasks. Memory Memory denotes the ability of an individual to remember, for instance, concepts learnt in class. There are three major types of memory, namely, immediate, short-term and long-term memories. A person with a cognitive disability may have challenges with any of the three, any of the two or all of the three forms of memory. Individuals with memory difficulties tend to not to remember certain important aspects depending on their difficulties. For instance, an individual with an acute memory problem can scarcely remember anything such as their name, date or names of places. Consequently, such a person can hardly read since they cannot learn. From the research undertaken, it is evident people with poor memory are poor readers (Bradyt, 1991). Most learning in elementary begins by teaching children how to pronounce alphabetical letters. Consequently, children are introduced to the pronunciation of different words. Such skills are taught alongside others such as how to spell different words. If a child cannot remember how to write the alphabetical letters or how to pronounce them, then such as a child will have difficulties reading as they cannot remember how to pronounce different words. Attention and Concentration Individuals with cognitive disabilities that make them unable to concentrate or focus on a subject will have reading disabilities. Such persons will hardly focus on anything for long, as their attention will shift when distracted slightly. This makes it difficult for them to learn subsequently affecting their ability to read. The loss of the ability to concentrate at times may be the result of an Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Reading require concentration therefore a person with a cognitive disability of this nature will have difficulties reading, From the above analysis, it is evident that cognitive processes have a vital role in reading. Cognitive processes are mental functions, which make reading possible among people. Thus, dysfunctional cognitive processes will result in impaired reading or reading disabilities (Bradyt, 1991). The nature or severity of reading disability will vary depending on the impaired cognitive process. Acute memory difficulties make it impossible for a person to read. Minor problems such as attention result in mild reading disabilities, which may be resolved through rehabilitation. Cognitive processes are central to reading since they enable the person to reason, calculate, remember and differentiate. Without such abilities, a person will suffer reading disabilities. Cognitive processes facilitate the processing of information, which is stored in the memory, and assists in reading. In addition, they also enable retrieval of relevant information when a person is reading a text to enabling understanding of the text while also placing ideas in relevant logical structures. References Bradyt, A., (1991). The Role of Working Memory in Reading Disability Laboratories Status. Haskin Laboratory status Report on Speech Research, 105/106,9-22 Hasbrouck, J. (2014). Understanding and Assessing Fluency. Retrieved on July 07, 2014 from http://www.readingrockets.org/article/27091 Oudot, L., Prevost, L. & Milgram, M. (2004). Self-supervised adaptation for on-line text recognition. IWFHR, Submited, 2004. Oudot, L., Prevost, L. & Milgram, M. (2006). An activation-verification model foron-line texts recognition. Retrieved on July 07, 2014 fromhttp://loic.oudot.free.fr/Publications/04%20IWFHR_Moteur.pdf Sternberg, J., & Sternberg, K. (2009). Cognitive psychology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Taylor, S. (2002). Fluency in Silent Reading. Retrieved on July 07, 2014 fromhttp://www.gio.co.za/Documents/FluencyInSilentReading.pdf Below are the links: http://www.readingrockets.org/article/27091 http://www.readingrockets.org/article/3415 Read More