Program Development Models of Adult Learning - Case Study Example

Adult Education: Comparison of Two Program Development Models and Application of One of the Models, in the Community Setting Introduction Adult education is defined as “a developmental process used to link various agent and client systems for the purpose of establishing directions and procedures for adult learning programs” (Schroeder, 1980: 42). Adult education program development consists of the assessing of needs, setting objectives, selecting and organising learner experiences, choosing and implementing teaching strategies, and evaluating outcomes. The planned and collaborative activities of adult educators and learner, and systems such as neighbourhoods and communities in designing and implementing educational strategies should culminate in behavioural change in individual learners and within learner groups and systems (Boone et al, 2002). The purpose of adult education programs is to enhance adults’ capacity to participate in society and improve their lives. An adult education program development model should have a clear statement of mission, philosophy, and goals that guides all aspects of program services. Further, it has to meet the needs of the program’s community, as well as the policies of its state and national funding agencies (Comings et al, 2006). Discussion The two theorists of adult education selected are: Stephen Brookfield (1986) and Malcolm Shepherd Knowles (1988). The program development models conceptualized by the above theorists are compared and contrasted below. Key Features: According to Brookfield (1986), facilitators of adult learning should not adopt formulaic responses to widely varying situations. Avoiding orthodoxy, creative application of theory to the unique circumstances of the practice setting is advocated. The institutional model comprises of basic tenets of instructor-learner relationship, in whch the learner is in a submissive position, and is completely dependent on the instructor for achieving learning outcomes. In Knowles’ (1988) andragogical model of program development, there is shift in research and practice from a focus on teaching to a focus on learning. Thus a new emphasis on education was introduced, as a process of facilitating self-directed learning. Another principle is that life-long learning is considered as the organising principle for all education. Role of Institution: Institutional culture, politics and technology will all play a part in impacting the program development process (Brookfield, 1986). Brookfield’s (1985) liberal model of adult education is institution-bound because it emphasizes principles of program design and the best use of available delivery systems, to plan a program to meet everyone’s needs. Institution model of adult education ensures that there is a rigid and consistent setting in which the teaching is done. On the other hand, in the andragogical model, education is no longer seen as the monopoly of educational institutions and their teachers. Resources for learning being everywhere in the environment, people can get help in their learning from a variety of other people. The modern responsibility becomes one of finding new ways to link learners with learning resources (Knowles, 1988). New delivery systems are also known as non-traditional studies, multi-media learning systems, community education, learning communities, learning resource centers, educational brokering agencies and learning networks. Andragogy focuses on the learning transaction, therefore it is equally applicable to each scenario. Role of Adult Educator: Developers of adult learning programs cannot afford to be mechanistic in their approach, states Brookfield (1986), which is a main trait of educators of the institutional model. They must be consistently innovative and adaptive. According to Wlodkowski (1985), a good instructor should have expertise, empathy, enthusiasm and clarity. The adult educator’s role includes that of both change agent and programmer. The change agent helps and facilitates potential learners to become aware of their needs, devises and implements means for achieving those objectives (Boone et al, 2002). Knowles (1988) asserts that as an educator the change agent must focus on involving the actual and potential learners in assessing needs, setting goals, selecting change strategies, implementing educational plans, and evaluating program outcomes. As a programmer, the adult educator cannot single-handedly establish a planned program. The programmer’s interactions with colleagues can significantly affect programming decisions, hence he should incorporate the inputs from the learner group also. Another assumption is that the programming process is influenced by the programmer’s personal characteristics and style. Knowles (1988) states that there is a redefinition of the role of teacher as facilitator of self-directed learning and a resource to self-directed learners. Role of the Learner: According to Brookfield (1986), learners are advised against unquestioningly accepting simplistic approaches to effective practice. Learners should be creative, adaptive, and draw what is relevant and appropriate from the various theories and to create their own theory in use. In the institutional model, the role of the learner is of passive listener. On the other hand, in the andragogical model the learner participates at all stages of the development of the adult education program. Diagnosis and assessment of needs, negotiation and setting of objectives, re-diagnosis of needs and measurement of program for evaluation; are all carried out on a mutual basis with the adult educator (Knowles and Swanson, 2005). Underlying Philosophy, Assumption: The liberal model advocated by Brookfield (1985) is based on the assumption that adult education is for enhancing the individuals’ freedom. However, the institutional model underlines the principle that teaching is educator-centric.. The six principles or assumptions of Knowles’ and Swanson’s latest model of core andragogical principles are: need to know, self-directed learner self-concept, learner’s experience, readiness to learn life tasks, problem-centered orientation to learning, and internal motivation to learn (Knowles and Swanson, 2005). According to Jarvis (2004), the ideology of andragogy is humanistic. According to Knowles and Swanson (2005), The Androgogical Model is a process model in contrast to the content models employed by most traditional educators. The content model is concerned with transmitting information and skills, whereas the process model is concerned with providing procedures and resources for helping learners acquire information and skills. Knowles (1988) states that acquiring knowledge, skills, understandings, attitudes, values and interests in the context of its application, is the best way to produce competent people. Characteristics of Adult Learner: According to Brookfield (1986), in the institutional model, the learner’s participation in the process is not encouraged. Adult learners are those whose intellectual aspirations are least likely to be aroused by the rigid uncompromising requirements of authoritative conventionalized institutions of learning. Knowles’ andragogical model regards learners as active explorers in the learning process, participating in every stage, and the teachers as resource persons for both content and process. Moreover, Wlodkowski (1985) believes that the most important attribute for learners is motivation for learning, through: attitude, need, stimulation, affect, competence and reinforcement. Nature of the Learning: In the institutional model, Brookfield (1986) states that the nature of the learning is instructor driven, and the adult student remains a passive receptor of instructions and knowledge. But this method is not advocated, if comprehensive learning outcomes are desired. Learning activities in the andragogical model are based on experiential techniques of inquiry (Knowles and Swanson, 2005). The learner is helped to develop realistic expectations, and mutual planning is done. There is mutual support and respect and the learning is in a relaxed, trusting, open and authentic environment. The learning plans are designed in problem units, sequenced by readiness. Andragogy is a set of core adult learning principles that can be applied to all adult learning situations. The strength of andragogy can be illustrated by examples to show that the goal is related to the learning process. Extra emphasis may be placed on developing self-directedness among the learners. For work-related performance improvement, extra emphasis may be placed on relating the content to work situations. In order to achieve long-term stability, adult education programs should provide for the tasks of financial analysis and planning, management of financial resources and investment decisions, state Shim and Siegel (1997). The Application of Knowles’ (1988) Andragogical Model of Program Development: Adult Education in the Community Setting, a Critical Evaluation Community education is “the process of identification of community needs and the marshalling of resources to meet those needs so that the community and all its members can grow through social and educational programs” (Brookfield, 1985: 234). Adult education has a societal role, and in the United States the Liberal model of community adult education is conceived and practised. The liberal model assumes that the person is “free” and should be made yet freer and more enlightened.. For adult education in a community setting Knowles’ Andragogical model of adult education is selected as appropriate. First the needs of the community have to be assessed by qualitative and quantitative research methods to identify the most crucial needs. Then, the next stage is selection of appropriate candidates for the educational program, according to the goals that need to be achieved. Then the planning on a mutually dependent basis is carried out by the educator and the learners so that there are inputs and ideas from all concerned. The outcomes that are required are mutually discussed and finalized. According to Jarvis (2004), Knowles placed a tremendous emphasis on the Self. On the other hand, Knox (1977) observed that the self undergoes development throughout the lifespan, and some aspects of that development may be related to physical age. Considering learning as an existentialist phenomenon, to focus only on the self is too narrow, and the emphasis should have been on the whole person. Scholars such as Riesman (1950) have pointed out that some adults are “other directed”; hence in a learning situation they become dependent upon a teacher. This shows that there are exceptions to the characteristics of adult learners as outlined by Knowles. Adult education is a service for the community in the same way as other community development services to a community such as affordable housing and health centres. These educational services are basic requirements, such as training and literacy programmes for the purpose of preparing for jobs (Van Der Veen, 2003). However, Hartree (1984) has expressed his doubt on the validity of Knowle’s (1988) andragogical model of adult education. Jarvis (2004) states that Knowles’ concept that adults have an expanded reservoir of experience that may be emphasized as a rich resource for future learning needs to be seen in the context that children and adolescents also have some experience that may be used as a resource in their learning. Though Knowles’ concept of experience was a focal point for his theory of experiential learning, his formulation of it is considered as weak, due to lack of research on it. Adult education can significantly raise the proficiency of adults who already have some experience and knowledge in a particular area. In the community setting, when a need for better water supply or public transport is felt by the residents, the adult educator can focus on giving the community members knowledge on which federal agency to approach, and the procedures regarding registering their complaint to the appropriate authorities. Thus it is observed that Knowles’ (1988) andragogical theory can be adapted to the community setting, though some researchers have voiced their reservations about it. Conclusion The benefits of adult education reach out beyond the adult to family members and to society as a whole. Greater benefits such as access to health insurance and the awareness of rights and responsibilities as citizens result in higher quality of life. Additionally, the children of educated adults are more likely to become educated citizens. Society is benefited by an educated citizenry, because these individuals contribute to community and nation building in various ways (Zafft et al, 2006). Due to a rapidly changing society, community development is a crucial requirement, and when it remains linked with lifelong learning sustained development is possible. References Boone, E. J., Jones, J. and Safrit, R. D. (2002). Developing Programs in Adult Education: A Conceptual Programming Model. United States: Waveland Press. Brookfield, S. (1985). “Community adult education: a comparative analysis of theory and practice” Comparative Education Review, 29(2): 232-240. Brookfield, S. (1986). Understanding and Facilitating Adult Learning. San Francisco: Jossey- Bass Publishers. Comings, J. P., Soricone, L. and Santos, M. (2006). “An evidence-based adult education program model appropriate for research”. NCSALL Occassional Paper, National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy, Harvard Graduate School of Education, Cambridge, Massachussetts. Web site: http://www.ncsall.net/fileadmin/resources/research/op_comings4.pdf Hartree, A. (1984). “Malcolm Knowles’ Theory of Androgogy: a critique”. International  Journal of Lifelong Education, 3, April-June: 203-210  Jarvis, P. (2004). Adult Education and Lifelong Learning: Theory and Practice. New York: Routledge. Knox, A. B. (1977). Adult Development and Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.  Knowles, M. S., Swanson, R. A. (2005). The Adult Learner: The Definitive Classic in Adult Education and Human Resource Development. California: Butterworth-Heinemann. Knowles, M. S. (1988). The Modern Practice of Adult Education: From Pedagogy to Androgogy. United States: Cambridge Book Company. Knowles, M.S. (1978). The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species. 2nd ed. Houston: Gulf. Riesman, D. (1950). The Lonely Crowd: A Study of the Changing American Character. New Haven: Yale University Press. Zafft, C., Kallenbach, S., and Spohn, J. (2006). “Transitioning adults to college: adult basic education program models”. NCSALL Occassional Paper, National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy, Harvard Graduate School of Education, Cambridge, Massachussetts. Web site: http://www.ncsall.net/fileadmin/resources/research/op_collegetransitions.pdf Shim, J. K. and Siegel, J. (1997). “Financial management for non-profits: the complete guide to maximising resources and managing assets”. United States: McGraw-Hill. Van Der Veen, R. (2003). “Community development as citizen education”. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 22(6): 580-596. Wlodowski, R. (1985). Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn: A Guide to Improving Instruction and Increasing Learner Achievement. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 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