Cross-Cultural Research, Values and Beliefs - Assignment Example

 Cross-Cultural Research Introduction Cross-culture relates to the interaction of people or a group of people sharing a particular culture or values and beliefs with the people belonging to other cultures in a global environment. In other words, cross culture is explained to be the interaction of people across the border or internationally. Globalization has been found to greatly facilitate foreign trade and has created ample of opportunities for businesses around the world. It has created wide platforms for the organizations operating nationally to expand its business globally and thereby triggering interaction between the different cultures prevailing across the world (Ballow, 2005). Hence, in order to sustain and to create enhanced business prospects, development of an urge for the organizations to gain a better comprehension of the different business cultural practices in other corners of the world has been noted. The proper comprehension of cross-culture is essential for the business organizations as the practice of one’s culture in the domestic market may be considered as rude or improper in the some other part of the globe. An increased number of firms as well as organizations are found to be growing at the rapid speed (Maitah, n. d). Consequently, the demand for better understanding has been realized in order to attain a competitive advantage and formulate effectual marketing strategies in accordance with the cultural aspect of the host nation. Understanding the international culture helps the organizations to get rid of the cultural differences such as language barriers and stereotype patterns with regard to the global business environment. Thus, in order to be successful in the global market it is considered necessary to maintain effective cross cultural relationships between the international partners (Wharton Society of International Management, 2009). Description of the Japanese Culture Despite of the rapid economic growth of other countries such as China and India, Japan still remains to be an important centre for business and commerce not only in Asia but across the world. As far as the cultural aspect of Japan is concerned, it can be stated that the Japanese culture is a multi layered and complex system which has been developed over the years. Japan continues being isolated from the other parts of the globe and few foreigners were learnt to have settled in Japan. It is believed that the Japanese history roots back to the Chinese Culture. The Japanese organizations operate their businesses in a hierarchically structured sequence similar to the functioning of their society (World Business Culture, n. d). The Japanese organizations believe in group efforts which they regard as their strength at the business places. Japanese not only focuses on group endeavors in their business places but also considers it important in their social life. Usually Japanese businesses are reliant on mutual cooperation and understanding rather than decision-making hierarchy. This signifies that the Japanese are committed towards their job and society. The concept of ‘Wa’ in Japan which means harmony is valued highly by all the Japanese people. Japanese emphasizes on peaceful decision-making processes and avoids getting panicked even in adverse circumstances. Japanese often places high significance on group attempts instead of concentrating on individual efforts (World Business Culture, n. d). Japanese are credited for the evolution of the technique just-in-time and adheres to this method closely. Japanese business partners make increased efforts for the reason of maintaining a higher degree of understanding between each other which as a result provides less space for the occurrence of any kind of conflict between them. Japanese employees recognize and realize the work quite carefully and a friendly environment is found to be developed at the work place in order to promote group attempts. Every individual is expected to perform in a group and channelize their effort towards the collective goals. Harmony is highly acknowledged and pursued in the Japanese corporate as well as society. It often acts as a guiding principle for the Japanese in establishing family businesses. Japanese tend to emphasize on personal responsibility and politeness along with supporting collective rather than individual goals. Conceptually, the Japanese strive to maintain and ensure group harmony and offers greater emphasis on facial expressions, postures and voice modulation for being able to recognize the way an individual is feeling (World Business Culture, n. d). It would be worth mentioning in this regard that misinterpretation of the communication style in Japan may result to losing of business opportunities for those foreigners with improper knowledge regarding the Japanese way of communicating. Japanese expresses minimal reactions and maintains formal upright postures while conducting meeting which makes it difficult for the foreign business associates to identify the kind of feeling being experienced by the Japanese partners. The Japanese businessmen often prefer to keep silent in order to release tension in business hours as well as in their social lives. However, the people from the west are often found to rely on discussions to resolve their issues. Japanese believe in maintaining calmness and politeness in their business and societal lives. Japanese bow (ojigi) for greeting an individual, apologizing or even while asking favors from other individuals. The style of the bow is learnt to depend on the status, if the person whom an individual is bowing appears to be a senior one then it is advisable to bow a little lower according to the Japanese culture. It needs to be taken into deliberation that the western ‘OK’ sign means money in Japanese and should not be used frequently. Japanese consider the gesture of pointing to be rude and ill mannered. In addition to this, spitting and sniffing in the public places is not considered to be acceptable as well. Punctuality is considered to be quite vital by the Japanese in their business life and arriving late at business meetings is regarded as discourteous. Majority of the Japanese people maintain an impassive or emotionless expression while communicating regarding their feeling or interacting with their business partners. Discussing about World War II and expressing amusement is considered to be offensive and is often avoided (Kwintessential n. d). It is acceptable to present gifts to the Japanese associates or partners but offering similar kind of gifts to different individuals irrespective of their position can prove to be a grave mistake. If Japanese offers a gift, it is advisable to refuse politely once or twice before finally accepting a gift offered by the Japanese as it is considered to be modest. Though Japanese prefer to conduct business on personal basis but it is required to get a prior appointment whenever possible in order to hold a meeting or discussion with them. Instead of using letters or emails, making use of telephone for fixing an appointment is considered to be quite appropriate. In the place of a meeting, senior most individuals are placed furthest from the door and others on a descending arrangement to the junior most. The Japanese are generally found to be non-confronting in nature. While negotiating, it is advisable to keep control of one’s temper and avoid speaking in a high pitch (Hofstede, n. d). According to Hofstede’s cultural dimension, Japan scores 46 on individualism and 54 on collectivism. Therefore, it can be well inferred from the scores that Japan involves a collectivist culture. In addition to this, Japanese believes in harmony and group effort unlike several western countries (Hofstede, n. d). Description of American Culture American culture is believed to be fundamentally based on the belief of equality. Americans believes in the notion of equality and advocates equal rights and equal opportunities within the society. Americans rest increased worth on their business and their personal relationships are known to involve lesser degree of significance when compared to other cultures. Americans holds on to the concept of ‘Time is Money’ (Import-From-China-Business, n. d). American businessmen devote additional time in enhancing their performance. Beside this, punctuality is also considered to be quite imperative while performing or conducting business in America. In America, business is conducted for six days i.e. from Monday to Friday. Americans are regarded as increasingly informal and at times rude behavior is found to be displayed by them. Americans favor the idea of nuclear families and family members are often found to be kept away from the business environment. Greetings in America are more casual and a simple handshake, smile or even hello can be acceptable by the Americans but they are learnt to refrain from making physical contacts. English is widely spoken and it is considered to be the major business language. Beside English, Spanish is largely popular in America and particularly in Central America. It is common for the Americans to relate sport trilogy in the process of their business negotiations. While conducting business in America, one requires necessarily abiding by the rules as well as regulations which individuals conducting business in America should follow. Generally Americans consider the aspect of negotiation to be the problem solving method which is supposed to be based on mutual discussions. Unlike Asia and numerous other countries, Americans emphasizes more on the degree of authority as well as financial position. Eye contact is not considered to be rude and maintaining eye contacts demonstrates feeling of sincerity for the Americans (Communicaid, 2009). Americans seek for the best possible business outcomes and deals inspite of concentrating on developing relationship with the foreign associates. Americans strive to deliver superior results in the shortest possible time. Americans usually prefer direct and honest communication with their associates and places significance on logic rather than group interest. Americans do not resist certain informal gestures such as laughing during business hours and jokes are often acceptable in the process of conducting business. Besides this, gift offering gifts is also considered to be acceptable and is usually presented after business meetings. Americans are found to be display high willingness in accepting challenges in businesses or business risks. While making business decisions, Americans may not hesitate to display their disagreement on certain statements made by their business colleagues. American executives are learnt to be maintain a quite straight forward attitude and values concise discussions along with expecting the same from their foreign associates (Communicaid, 2009). According to Hofstede’s cultural dimension, America scores 91 on the aspect individualism which signifies that America’s culture is highly individualist. Accordingly, American culture emphasizes on individual initiatives and personal achievements rather than group or combined efforts. Instead of relying on group decisions, Americans tend to make decisions based on individual perceptions (Hofstede, n. d). Similarities and differences Japanese culture and American Culture Time orientation Time factor is observed to play an important function in today’s rapidly changing business environment. Maximum amount of business related activities and information are supposed to be based on the time factor. Bare minimum similarities between Japanese time orientation and American time orientation is observed to subsist. The only similarity between the two cultures has been identified to be the aspect of punctuality. Both the cultures emphasizes on punctuality while conducting business with their international associates or partners. Japanese are found to engage increased time to build relationship with their business associates while Americans places lesser emphasis on building relationships and believes in making decisions quicker. Japanese may tend to focus on long-term perspective of their business and in comparison the Americans are known to consider short-term benefits. Americans believes in the concept of ‘Time is Money’ while the Japanese adheres to the concept of ‘Wa’ which means group harmony. It is worth to be mentioning that Japanese tend to be past time oriented and on the contrary American tends to be focused much on the future (Kumayama, 1991). Communication An effectual form of communication is considered to be essential for the success of international businesses which operate globally. The similarities between Japanese and American culture can be inferred on the basis of two factors. Both the culture demands for written form of contracts in business dealings and both the cultures conduct business seriously with utmost dedication. However, there exist few differences in the pattern of communication between these two cultures. Americans prefer a blunt and direct method of communication while Japanese adheres to formal communication style. Often the Japanese are found to prefer keeping silent for the reason of finding solutions to their problems while Americans believe in negotiation and mutual discussion to resolve their issues. Japanese are known to have a tendency to hide their emotions during business discussions whereas on the contrary Americans are observed to openly articulate their feelings (Kumayama, 1991). Physical and mental health While comparing Japan and America in terms of physical and mental health, it has been learnt that the Americans are much sportier and mentally sound in comparison to the Japanese. The lifestyle of the Japanese are considered to be increasingly stressful than the Americans (Kumayama, 1991). Group Relationships It will be tough to find any kind of similarity between the Japanese and Americans with respect to their group relationships. Japanese often relies on group work for their business operations while Americans believe in individual initiatives. Japanese comes to a decision after a group discussion irrespective of the position of an individual whereas Americans are tend to depend on their executives for making decisions in the business places. Americans favor quick decision-making as they do not believe wasting time in discussing with groups in contrast to the Japanese who often attempts to create harmony and offer priorities to the group interest rather than individual goals. In addition to this, Japanese engage more time in building relationships and knowing their business partners while the Americans place lesser importance on relationship building and are more individualistic (Kumayama, 1991). Perceptions and Measures of Intelligence With respect to the similarities between the perception of Japanese and American culture, both cultures are supposed to consider their business activities seriously and strives to deliver or ensure the best possible outcomes. Businesses in both the countries are not regarded as leisure activities but are regarded as a vital part of life and both the cultures perform their business activities with utmost sincerity and with active presence of mind. Americans pursue a culture which is found to be high on individualism and as a result they find it difficult and challenging to understand others viewpoints and perceptions while Japanese who favors collectivism are found to be increasingly competent of ascertaining the perceptions of other individuals (Kumayama, 1991). Description of Theory A well known Dutch analyst Geert Hofstede coined the cross culture theory after interviewing a huge number of international business personalities. The theory has been divided into six dimensions namely: Individualism versus Collectivism The theory deals with the actuality of the way people view themselves with respect to their social culture. Often people identify oneself with a particular group or focus on individual goals with providing less value to groups. Hence the tendency of individuals to focus on themselves and their close relatives is termed to be individualistic and the practice of such culture is known as individualism while those who work for the benefits of the groups and identifies themselves as the part of such a group is referred to as collectivist and the practice of such culture is known as collectivism (Hofstede, n. d). Power Distance Hierarchy of position or status is often observed to involve a significant role in few of the cultures. Certain cultures may differentiate between people based on the status and position occupied by them in the society while other cultures may place little priorities on position or status. This distinction prevailing in the different societies is regarded as power distance by Hofstede (Hofstede, n. d). Masculinity versus Femininity The theory examines the differences prevailing between the genders. In case of the western countries lesser degree of distinction is learnt to be made between the male and female. Both are supposed to be equal in all respects. Hence the culture which favors the aspect of equality between the genders and focuses on relationships and cooperation is regarded as femininity while there are certain cultures such as the culture of Middle East, where male domination is preferred and can be widely witnessed. Females are often prohibited from taking active participation in business or other activities. Hence, those cultures favoring the domination of male over female which is characterized by strong competition and assertiveness is regarded as masculinity (Hofstede, n. d). Uncertainty Avoidance According to Hofstede, in few cultures people are considered to be more relaxed and display an eagerness to accept risks while in case of other cultures, people often regard the future to be unknown and demonstrates greater concern towards it. The degree of reliance on such beliefs may be higher in few of the cultures while certain cultures may involve a lower degree of such kind of dependence (Hofstede, n. d). Long-term versus short-term orientation Long-term orientation with regard to a culture relates to the efforts exerted by a certain culture for ensuring a secured future. With regard to such orientation, people are known to guide their attempts towards saving and making decision with utmost care. In case of short-term orientation, people are observed to be less worried regarding their future and are quick in making decisions. Such cultures are learnt to saves less for the future and provide greater priority to their present (Hofstede, n. d). Indulgence versus Restraint A culture which is believed to entail the factor of indulgence facilitates reasonably free fulfillment of basic and natural individual drives associated with enjoying life and having fun. Conversely, a culture which is known to be restraint exceeds gratification of needs and regulates it by means of strict social norms (Hofstede, n. d). Influence of Culture A particular country’s culture is measured to influence its business related aspects along with managerial decision-making. Proper understanding of home as well as foreign culture enables businesses to identify the customers’ needs and deal with foreign clients effectively (Hofstede, n. d). Human Development Culture greatly influences an individual to shape his/her behavior in social life as well as in businesses. Japan, which scores high on Hofstede’s masculinity proves the actuality that the people belonging to the Japanese culture are more ambitious and assertive. They favor working in groups and emphasize more on group development rather than individual development. The American culture is known to lay greater stress on individual efforts in comparison to collective endeavors and is thus measured to score high on the dimension of femininity. Americans are more diverted towards individual development as stated above and an individual believes in freedom as well as in equality. Furthermore, development of an individual largely depends on the culture and society to which one is found to be more attached (Communicaid, 2009). Identity Development Culture helps to develop identities for an individual. A Japanese individual will identify him/her as a group member while an American will choose to identify himself/herself independently and not relate oneself with his/ her company. Hence, socio- economic culture facilitates an individual to identify him or her either as a part of a certain group or separate from the groups (Hofstede, n. d). Personality development Culture creates tremendous impact on personality development. An individual belonging to American culture, which emphasizes on individualism, may find it difficult to work in groups. While Japanese culture which focuses on collectivism and demands an individual to sacrifice personal goals for the attainment of group goals, may find it more relaxing to work in groups. Similarly, Japanese may demonstrate aggressiveness in their work while the Americans may behave in other manner (Hofstede, n. d). Expression of Emotion It may be worth mentioning that few definite cultures restrict the expression of emotions openly while others are found to favor it. For instance, a Japanese individual belonging to the restraint dimension of Hofstede’s cross culture theory avoids displaying emotions openly while conducting business meetings or communicating with others. However, the Americans relating to the indulgence cultural aspect are observed to be more direct and frank in their way as well as style of communication. In addition to this it can be mentioned that an American may not consider it as an offense when one crack jokes or expresses amusement in certain circumstances (Hofstede, n. d). The Development of Morality Moral development of an individual is greatly influenced by the theories stated by Hofstede. In a culture where uncertainty avoidance and power distance is considered to be high among the individuals, such cultures are learnt to rely more on their superiors and formal rules. While, in case of the American culture where uncertainty avoidance and power distance is found to be low, individuals are observed to appear less inclined towards formal rules and judging alternatives (Hofstede, n. d). Gender Gender stereotype is closely linked with the cultures that prevail across the world. According to Hofstede, Japan scores 95 on the element of masculinity and ranks as the nation with highest masculinity in the world. The countries with high masculinity scores identify differences between the role of male and female in the functioning of the society. Moreover, they place chief concern on wealth and achievement. Unlike Japan, America scores relatively low on masculinity aspect which signifies that the American culture provides lesser degree of significance on the aspects of family and building relationships. Such culture advocates equality of position between the genders (Hofstede, n. d). Aggression Countries such as Japan which scores relatively low on uncertainty avoidance demonstrates less aggressive attitude while countries such as America which scores relatively high on the similar dimension displays more aggression in work places and while decision-making (Hofstede, n. d). Psychological Process Cross-culture factors also influence the behavior of individuals. People in Japan prefer to solve their crisis by maintaining silence and dedicating time towards the process of thinking. In contrast to this, Americans disregards the idea of being silent and resolves their issues quickly with effective negotiation (Kwintessential, n. d). Biases in Cross- Cultural Research Dealing with cross-culture issues are often considered challenging in research activities. However, the American culture is considered to be widely popular and also influences cultures prevailing in other countries of the globe. Hence, one may show biasness towards the American culture while analyzing the cross-culture aspect between America and other countries owing to familiarization of the American culture. Emics and Etics may be regarded to be the other features which may contribute towards the development of biased attitudes in researches. Information and perception of other people along with views expressed in books, newspapers and other mass media may also lead to biasness with regard to the perceptions of other cultures. Ethnocentrism may add more to favoritism towards a particular culture (Vijver & Tanzer, 2004). Conclusion With the growth of the notion related to globalization, there has been noted a drastic change in the process of conducting business. It has proved successful in eliminating the business boundaries and paved way for a broader variety of opportunities for the businesses to expand and succeed in the international arena. However, the expansion of businesses globally has raised few issues such as cross-cultural aspect of the countries. In order to exploit the opportunities of the international businesses, it has become necessary for organizations planning to branch out globally to gain a proper understanding of the host culture. The appropriate comprehension of the host culture helps the foreign business organizations to structure and implement market strategies as well as deal with the host counterparts accordingly. Dearth of understanding may result in the failure of the businesses in the host countries. Culture prevailing in different countries is known to vary vastly. Japanese culture when compared to American culture brings out several differences. According to Hofstede and the six cultural dimension theory, Japanese culture scores high on collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, power distance, masculinity and emphasizes on long-term orientation. Whereas, the American culture has been found to score high on individualism, relatively low on masculinity, uncertainty avoidance, power distance and is usually short-term oriented. The cross cultures influences on various factors aids in shaping the behavior of an individual. These factors include human development, identity development, personality development, moral and psychological aspects along with human perceptions. References Ballow. D. G. (2005). Globalization and cross-cultural issues in project management. Retrieved from http://www.asapm.org/asapmag/articles/GlobalizPM.pdf. Communicaid. (2009). Doing business in the USA. Retrieved from http://www.communicaid.com/access/pdf/library/culture/doing-business-in/Doing%20Business%20in%20the%20USA.pdf. Greet Hofstede. (n. d). National culture. Retrieved from http://geert-hofstede.com/japan.html. Hooker, J. (2007). Cross-cultural issues in business ethics. Retrieved from http://web.tepper.cmu.edu/jnh/aib.pdf. Maitah. M. (n. d). How culture affects your business. Retrieved from http://www.maitah.com/wp-content/How%20culture%20affects%20your%20business.pdf. Import-From-China-Business. (n. d) American business culture. Retrieved from http://www.import-from-china-business.com/american-business-culture.html. Kumayama, A. (1991). Japanese American cross-cultural business negotiations. Intercultural Communication Studies, pp. 50-59. Kwintessential. (n. d). Japan - Language, culture, customs and etiquette. Retrieved from http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/resources/global-etiquette/japan-country-profiles.html. Vijver, F.V.D & Tanzer, N.K. (2004). Bias and equivalence in cross-cultural assessment: An overview. Revue européenne de psychologie appliqué, pp. 119-135. Wharton Society of International Management. (2009). The importance of cross-cultural awareness for effective management. Retrieved from http://www.whartonsim.org/cross-cultural-awareness.htm. World Business Culture. (n. d). Japanese business structures. Retrieved from http://www.worldbusinessculture.com/Japanese-Business-Structures.html. Bibliography Adekola, A & Sergi, B.S. (2007). Global business management: A cross-cultural perspective. United Kingdom: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. Read More