The Sport and Exercise Scientist and DOMS - Article Example

The Sport and Exercise Scientist and DOMS (Delayed Onset of Muscle Soreness) Muscle soreness within 24 to 48 hours of a hard workout is normal, especially if a person is just beginning a workout regimen following a period of no workouts at all. Professional athletes recognize the pain that follows a hard or extended workout period as delayed onset muscle soreness, or DOMS, writes Dr. Gabe Mirkin in his Washington Times byline (2006:C12). Athletes, who by virtue of that title are often keenly aware of the interdisciplinary approach to DOMS, know to rest or take a shorter workout period the following day until the soreness subsides (2006: C12). This is the “good” muscle soreness that tells you your body is responding to the activity of your workout by producing muscle repairing prostaglandin, which will help your muscle build in strength and tissue and become more durable as workout periods increase or become harder (2006: C12). For sport and exercise scientists, the goal should be one of helping clients understand the interdisciplinary approach to DOMS, which will help clients avoid permanent muscle damage and will help minimize future workout injuries. The condition of DOMS is best described as “the disruption of contractile and/or connective tissue (Freeman, L., and Lawlis, G. F.2001:367).” It’s indicative of one of two things; the activity of the muscle groups after a prolonged delay of inactivity, or an excessively hard and strenuous workout (for athletes). If not properly cared for, DOMS can lead to a more serious injury. In other words, it should not be ignored, but taken as a sign that the body requires some respite or rest to rejuvenate itself. It is an indication that neutrophils, white blood cells, are accumulating following the increase in number of blood neutrophils, then a decline in the nuetrophils. Thus, the neutrophils will accumulate at the site in response to the preceding building up, then decline of those neutrophils. Muscles store sugar as glycogen in their fibers which gives them energy during the workout or activity(Mirkin 2004:C12). Therefore, it becomes necessary to try to build up the used glycogen that has been exhausted by the workout and energy burn-off. Dr. Mirkin recommends a diet high in carbohydrates following a workout where DOMS sets in (2004:C12). It is the multidisciplinary approach to the treatment of DOMS with which sport and exercise scientist need to most concern and educate themselves on too. “The good soreness,” says Dr. Mirkin, “caused by microscopic tears in your muscle fibers. It’s not caused by lactic acid buildup (2006:C12).” The interdisciplinary approach to understanding DOMS is one in which the knowledge of the condition itself is combined with other disciplines, bone structure, physiology, nutrition, and even psychiatry to accomplish the best overall fitness for the client, and to develop the most appropriate workout regimen that will help the client achieve overall body and mind wellness and fitness. While the multidisciplinary approach is a benefit to the client and the professional athlete in all aspects and elements of their personal physical fitness, this paper will focus on the subject of DOMS in order to best illustrate and demonstrate the benefits of a multidisciplinary approach to physical fitness. Drs. Ferdy Massimino and Robert E. Sallis, in their book Essentials of Sports Medicine (1997), discuss the multidisciplinary approach to sports and fitness. The sport and exercise scientist who practices a multidisciplinary approach, they doctors write, draw from a team of professionals and experts. (1997:214) Especially for the client returning to a physical fitness regimen after a prolonged period of inactivity, the physician is a key player in the multidisciplinary approach in assisting the sport and exercise scientist in developing the best program for the client. The physician’s role is one of evaluating the client for overall physical ability to participate in a fitness regimen, and continues to monitor the client’s physical status as the client progresses through the planned workout and exercise regimen.(1997:214) It is with the coordination and interaction between the sport and exercise scientist and the client’s physician that the sport, or workout regimen or routine in which the client becomes engaged under the guidance of the scientist will be determined.(1997:214) Another important player in the multidisciplinary approach to sport and exercise is the nutritionist. The nutritionist will work with the sport and exercise scientist to keep abreast of the client’s workout progress, and will coordinate with the scientist the best nutritional menu for the client to follow as he or she progresses in through their sport and exercise steps and goals. A psychologist, whose role, write the doctors, become recognized by modern sport and exercise scientists as an integral component in a multidisciplinary approach to a client’s sports care, will work closely with the client’s physician and the other professionals involved in the care of an athlete (1997:214). Of course, too, the sport and exercise scientist or personal trainer is a key figure in personal fitness or for the athlete, as is the client’s family, who must be supportive of the client’s goals in his or her physical fitness. All of these professionals and individuals, as a coordinated body of information, training and support constitute the interdisciplinary approach to physical fitness and wellness for the professional athlete and individuals seeking overall fitness and wellness. With this understanding of the collective body of individuals and expertise and knowledge that comprises the interdisciplinary approach to sports and exercise, how then would the sport and exercise scientist approach the condition of DOMS? The answer is that the sport and exercise scientist will prepare his or her self to recognize the condition with his or her own proper training and education and certification or licensure. The credentialing of the sport and exercise scientist as an expert in their field is essential to the credibility and expertise that they will provide their clients. It is that education, training and certification that will prepare the sport and exercise scientist to recognize the difference between DOMS, and something which may be indicative of a more serious or potentially serious sport or exercise injury. The sport and exercise scientist’s approach to DOMS should be one of caution, especially for a non-athlete who is returning to a workout regimen after a prolonged period of inactivity. The scientist should, with the permission of the client of course coordinate information with the client’s physician to ensure that an examination follows to rule out other potentially more serious conditions that involve the client’s muscular or bone structures. Delayed onset of muscle soreness, DOMS, requires the attention of the client and the sport and exercise scientist. A preventative approach should be taken, to prevent more serious muscle or bone damage. Having consulted with the client’s personal physician to rule out a more serious condition, the sport and exercise scientist can proceed with a training program that is designed to fit the individual client’s physical and well being needs. “Training programs embrace the concept of fitting the human to the task. Ideally training regimes are designed with specific goals in mind and can be evaluated in terms of reaching specific physiological targets (Greeves and Reilly 2002:7).” A pre-requisite to any training program or regime for an individual beginning after a prolonged period of inactivity, is to begin with a program that involves strength training (2002:7). Strength training is a prerequisite to plyometric training, which focuses on stretch-shortening cycles of muscle action as employed in bounding, hopping or drop-jumping regimes (2002:7). These are the regimes that often are found in aerobic exercise, and the approach to even basic aerobic exercise is one of strength training to avoid severe muscle damage. There will be some measure of DOMS associated with any new or returning client’s sport or exercise routine. This should be treated initially with deep running water therapy to help alleviate the soreness (2002:7). Another important element in preventing DOMS from becoming a more serious condition is consistency in the workout regime that involve the interplay of the different physiological systems (2002:7). Trainer Niki Anderson recommends “. . . repeat the same workout it will eventually cease to make you sore. Do keep in mind, however, that repeating your program over and over will reduce progress in the long run (Anderson 2005:2).” The sport and exercise scientist will need to keep abreast of the client’s condition and, using the multidisciplinary approach, coordinate and document the client’s physiological, nutritional and overall well being in the direction of his or her workout regime. Involving a massage therapist in the multidisciplinary approach to the client’s early training might be a good avenue for the sport and exercise scientist to pursue. Studies conducted on DOMS and the effects of massage therapy on the condition, and some studies suggest that massage therapy after prolonged work periods help disrupt the processes of inflammation and the accumulation of neutrophils (Field 1998:1278). “This would result in a diminished inflammatory response and a concomitant reduction in delayed onset muscle soreness and waste products. Generally, assessments are made before the exercise and at several intervals after the exercise (1998:1278).” Thus, again, emphasizing both the need for and advantages of a interdisciplinary approach to recognizing and managing DOMS, and the need for the sport and exercise scientist to be a key player in the client’s interdisciplinary coordination of activity and information. It should be noted, and appropriately so reported, that there are in fact some studies that show that massage therapy is ineffective in combating DOMS (1998:1279). However, if we consider the therapy in terms of the interdisciplinary approach to the client’s fitness program, it would probably be reported, too, that following massage therapy most clients would report good feelings and a sense of invigoration following the therapy. In that sense, from the interdisciplinary sense, massage therapy should always be something that the sport and exercise scientist consider making a part of the client’s fitness regime. When the goal is one of achieving the maximum well being for the client from an interdisciplinary approach to the client’s overall fitness, then massage therapy, regardless of the discussion as to whether it serves to physiologically contribute to the client’s improved condition, so long as it contributes to the client’s mental fitness and perspective, should still be considered. Especially in the condition of DOMS there have been positive study results to show that massage therapy is efficient in treating DOMS (Freeman and Lawlis 2001:368). This paper has shown how the multidisciplinary approach as opposed to the mono-disciplinary approach best serves the client, and especially the condition of DOMS. The role of the sport and exercise scientist is as an essential and central figure in the coordination of the client’s overall fitness in a multidisciplinary approach to fitness. The scientist’s duty to his or her client is one of coordinating the disciplines mentioned in this paper, and to continually assess and guide the client’s sport or exercise regime. Documentation of the client’s progress and response to the workout regime, especially as that regime progresses towards a more prolonged and harder workout session, since that information will become an essential tool for the multidisciplinary team working with the scientist and the client to achieve overall fitness, and to maximize the client’s physical fitness and well being. Works Cited Field, Tiffany M. "Massage Therapy Effects." American Psychologist 53.12 (1998): 1270-1281. Questia. 3 Apr. 2007 . Freeman, Lyn W., and G. Frank Lawlis. Mosbys Complementary Alternative Medicine: A Research-Based Approach. St. Louis, MO: Mosby, 2001. Questia. 3 Apr. 2007 . "Hard Training Builds Up Resistance." The Washington Times 7 May 2006: C11. Questia. 3 Apr. 2007 . "A Little Muscle Soreness Is Good." The Washington Times 5 Feb. 2006: C12. Questia. 3 Apr. 2007 . "Plenty of Warning to Stop Heatstroke." The Washington Times 4 July 2004: C12. Questia. 3 Apr. 2007 . Reilly, Thomas, and Julie Greeves. Advances in Sport, Leisure and Ergonomics. London: Routledge, 2002. Questia. 3 Apr. 2007 . Sallis, Robert E., and Ferdy Massimino, eds. Essentials of Sports Medicine. St. Louis, MO: Mosby, 1997. Questia. 3 Apr. 2007 . "Too Much, Too Soon Often the Cause of Muscle Soreness." Daily Herald (Arlington Heights, IL) 10 Jan. 2005: 2. Questia. 3 Apr. 2007 . A Little Muscle Soreness Is Good. Byline: Dr. Gabe Mirkin, SPECIAL TO THE WASHINGTON TIMES If you exercise regularly but never feel soreness in your muscles the day after a tough workout, you are not exercising properly and will not improve your fitness level as much as you could. A tip from competitive athletes who train hard and feel sore the next day: take easy workouts until the soreness goes away in a day or two. The good soreness that makes you stronger is called Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness and is caused by microscopic tears in your muscle fibers. Its not caused by lactic acid buildup. When muscles are damaged, they produce healing prostaglandin that cause muscles to become bigger and stronger than before they were exercised vigorously. Researchers have shown that DOMS heals faster when you do nothing, but if you take off every time your muscles feel sore, you will never become an athlete and you will not reach a high level of fitness. When you have DOMS and exert slight pressure on your muscles, you cause muscle fibers to become more fibrous, and they will become stronger so they can withstand greater stress during your harder workouts. Never try to put a lot of pressure on your muscles when they feel sore. That will increase the chance of injury. It is relatively easy to tell the difference between DOMS and an impending injury. DOMS is usually symmetrical, involving muscles equally on both sides of your body. An injury is more likely to cause pain only on one side. DOMS does not feel worse as you exercise at light intensity. An injury worsens with continued use of the injured part. Stop exercising when you have an injury. When your muscles feel sore from exercising, take the day off or exercise with light resistance, such as running or cycling slowly or lifting extremely light weights. Try stretching gently to help restore flexibility. Deep massage may help you to heal faster and toughen your muscles. Creams and ice will not help you recover faster, but many aspirin-containing creams and the ice may help alleviate discomfort. Ive seen conflicting news stories on coffee and diabetes. Should a diabetic drink coffee? A survey reported in the Journal of the American Medical Association (July 6, 2005) showed that drinking coffee reduces risk for developing type II diabetes, but two recent studies suggest that once you have diabetes, drinking coffee may be unwise. Canadian researchers writing in Diabetes Care (March 2005) showed that caffeine significantly reduced insulin sensitivity. In the July 2005 issue of the same journal, scientists from Duke University Medical Center reported that drinking coffee could upset a diabetics ability to metabolize sugar. Blood sugar levels are supposed to rise after you eat. To keep your blood sugar levels from rising too high, your pancreas releases insulin. The researchers found that taking caffeine causes blood sugar and insulin levels to rise even higher after meals. If your blood sugar rises too high, sugar sticks to cells. Once sugar is stuck on a cell membrane, it cant be released and is converted to a poison called sorbitol that destroys that cell. High levels of insulin constrict arteries to cause heart attacks and act directly on the brain to make you hungry, on your liver to make more fat and on the fat cells in your belly to pick up that fat. If these studies are confirmed, diabetics will be advised to restrict coffee as well as those foods that cause the highest rise in blood sugar after meals. * Questions may be sent to Dr. Gabe Mirkin care of The Washington Times, Sports Dept., 3600 New York Ave. NE, Washington, D.C. 20002. Dr. Mirkin regrets that unpublished letters cannot be answered individually. For more information, go to drmirkin.com. Questia Media America, Inc. www.questia.com Publication Information: Article Title: A Little Muscle Soreness Is Good. Newspaper Title: The Washington Times. Publication Date: February 5, 2006. Page Number: C12. COPYRIGHT 2006 News World Communications, Inc.; COPYRIGHT 2006 Gale Group Page Top of Form of 1 Bottom of Form Plenty of Warning to Stop Heatstroke. Byline: Dr. Gabe Mirkin, SPECIAL TO THE WASHINGTON TIMES Every year you hear about people who pass out when they exercise and die from heatstroke, a sudden uncontrolled rise in body temperature that affects the brain so it cant function properly. Heatstroke doesnt just happen. You get plenty of warning. First your muscles are affected, then your circulation and then your brain. As your temperature starts to rise, your muscles feel like a hot poker is pressing against them. As it rises further, the air you breathe feels like its coming from a furnace, and no matter how rapidly and deeply you try to breathe, you wont be able to get enough air. When this happens, stop exercising. If you continue to exercise, your body temperature will rise further and affect your brain. Your head will start to hurt, you will hear a ringing in your ears, you may feel dizzy, you may have difficulty seeing and then you will end up unconscious on the ground. When a person passes out from heatstroke, his brain is being cooked, just as the colorless part of an egg turns white when it hits the griddle. Get medical help immediately. Usually, the victim should be carried into the shade and placed on his back with his head down and his feet up. He should be cooled by any possible means. Liquid should be poured on him, and it doesnt matter whether its from a hose, a water bottle or a cup. It could be water, soda, beer, milk or whatever you have. After he is revived, he should be watched for more than an hour. His temperature can start to rise to high levels again. Is it normal for my muscles to feel sore for several days after a workout? Yes. After youve exercised vigorously, your muscles may feel fine, but they usually feel sore the next morning. Delayed-onset muscle soreness is caused by damage to muscle fibers. A study from the University of Zurich helps to explain why it takes days for muscles to recover from hard exercise (European Journal of Nutrition, June 2004). Muscles store sugar as glycogen in their fibers for energy, and this study shows that for the first few hours after hard exercise, muscles continue to lose glycogen. Since recovery depends on refilling muscles with stored glycogen as soon as possible after hard exercise, athletes should eat a high-carbohydrate meal as soon as possible after a hard workout and then take easy workouts for as many days as it takes for the soreness to go away. Taking another hard workout while the muscles feel sore increases risk for injures, so you should follow your hard workouts with easy days or days off until the soreness goes away. Can antioxidants improve memory? Possibly. Your body produces powerful chemicals called oxidants that are good because they help to remove aged and damaged cells and infectious agents from your body. These same oxidants can be bad because they can also damage and destroy healthy cells, so you also produce antioxidants to remove oxidants before they can destroy your healthy cells. Many scientists feel that loss of mental function governing memory and coordination is caused by excess exposure to oxidants and that certain foods can slow down aging by providing antioxidants for your body. In one study, rats were fed large amounts of antioxidant-containing strawberries, spinach or blueberries. The blueberry-fed rats retained their coordination far better than the spinach or strawberry groups, probably because blueberries contain large amounts of anthocyanin flavonoids that give them their blue color. Studies like this one should not encourage you to take antioxidant supplements. A healthy mind and body require a diet loaded with many different antioxidants and all of the other nutrients found in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, beans, seeds and nuts. * Questions may be sent to Dr. Gabe Mirkin care of The Washington Times, Sports Dept., 3600 New York Ave. NE, Washington, D.C. 20002. Dr. Mirkin regrets that unpublished letters cannot be answered individually. For more information, go to drmirkin.com. Questia Media America, Inc. www.questia.com Publication Information: Article Title: Plenty of Warning to Stop Heatstroke. Newspaper Title: The Washington Times. Publication Date: July 4, 2004. Page Number: C12. COPYRIGHT 2004 The Washington Times LLC; COPYRIGHT 2006 Gale Group Page Top of Form of 1 Bottom of Form was also a set of common findings. Across studies, decreases were noted in anxiety, depression, stress hormones (cortisol), and catecholamines. Increased parasympathetic activity may be the underlying mechanism for these changes. The pressure stimulation associated with touch may increase vagal activity, which in turn lowers physiological arousal and stress hormones (cortisol levels). The pressure is critical because light stroking is generally aversive (much like a tickle stimulus), and the above effects have not been noted for light stroking. Decreased cortisol in turn leads to enhanced immune function. Parasympathetic activity is also associated with increased alertness and better performance on cognitive tasks ( Porges, 1997). Given that most diseases are exacer bated by stress and that massage therapy alleviates stress, this alternative treatment may help reduce stress-related disease. Future directions for research may be discussed in the context of the most frequently raised questions about massage therapy. Those include the questions of whether massage therapy effects can be demonstrated in an equivalent way for healthy volunteer individuals in experimental conditions in contrast to the typical demonstration on individuals with medical conditions. Additionally, can the massage therapy effects occur using mechanical massage stimulation as opposed to human massage therapy? A third frequently raised question has to do with the underlying mechanism for the effects of massage therapy. Other occasionally raised questions are whether massage therapy has lasting effects, whether there are contraindications for massage therapy, and whether any particular massage therapy techniques are more effective than others. The literature has been equivocal about the question of massage therapy effects on healthy individuals. Most studies have focused on alleviating symptoms and combating disease, and literally no prevention studies appear in the literature. Probably the closest massage therapy literature that addresses the question is the literature focusing on sports and the effects of athletic massage. This, however, is a mixed-results literature. Typically the studies have focused on the effects of athletic massage on delayed onset muscle soreness and waste products. In such studies it is hypothesized that athletic massage administered after extensive exercise (typically two hours after the exercise) would disrupt an initial crucial event in acute inflammation and the accumulation of neutrophils. This would result in a diminished inflammatory response and a concomitant reduction in delayed onset muscle soreness and waste products. Generally, assessments are made before the exercise and at several intervals after the exercise. In many studies the effects are positive, but in other studies negative results occurred. The conflicting results have stimulated at least three reviews of that literature. As for many of the questions, the assessment tools that we have may simply not yet be sufficiently developed. Measurement technology has, as already mentioned, been one of the most limiting problems in conducting massage therapy research. The question of whether mechanical stimulation is as effective as stimulation provided by a massage therapist has never been addressed by directly comparing the two. However, an extensive literature on vibrator stimulation (most of which comes from Sweden) suggests significant therapeutic effects at least for pain reduction ( Lundeberg, 1984; Lundeberg, Abrahamsson, Bondesson , & Haker, 1987, 1988; Ottoson, Ekblom, & Hansson, 1981). In these studies, vibration, typically at 100 Hz, is applied to various points in different locations; in one study to the facial region affected by dental pain and in another study to different areas of the body in a patient suffering chronic musculoskeletal pain. Typically patients have reported a pain intensity reduction of 75%-100%. The greatest pain reduction occurred either in the area of pain, the affected muscle or tendon, the antagonistic muscle, or a trigger point outside the painful area. In most patients the greatest pain-reduction effect occurred when the vibratory stimulation was applied with moderate pressure. To obtain a maximum duration of pain relief the stimulation had to be applied for about 25-45 minutes. After 12 months of treatment most patients reported a greater than 50% reduction in analgesic drug intake, and in one study the vibratory stimulation was a more efficient pain suppressor than aspirin. Double-blind studies where the vibratory stimulator was compared with a "placebo unit" (the vibrator turned on to make the sound but not vibrating) also revealed significant vibrator effects. A more direct assessment of this question is needed in which vibrator therapy is compared with manual therapy using the same participants with the same condition. Still another important question is whether self-massage can be as effective as being massaged by another individual. The third question on underlying mechanisms has rarely been addressed. The most common theory that is based on anecdotal data and a very mixed empirical literature is that of massage increasing circulation or blood flow. Much of the literature suggesting that massage enhances circulation is an old literature that has been reviewed by Wakim ( Wakim, Martin, Terrier, Elkins, & Krusen, 1949). As early as 1900 one author reported that after massage cutaneous temperature increased three degrees. A subsequent study demonstrated an increase in the diameter and permeability of the capillaries following mechanical stimulation in frogs and mammals. In a later study investigators measured skeletal muscle blood flow before, during, and after different forms of massage using a more sophisticated method for determination of blood flow, called the Xenon washout method. During rigorous massage blood flow increased comparable with exercise hyperemia ( Hovind & Nielsen, 1974). In contrast to the earlier studies, a very recent study ( Shoemaker, Tidus, & Mader, 1997) reported a failure of manual massage to alter blood flow as measured by Doppler Ultrasound. The authors noted that the mean blood velocity and blood flows for the brachial and femoral arteries respectively were not altered by any of the massage treatments whether they were administered mild -1278- Questia Media America, Inc. www.questia.com Publication Information: Article Title: Massage Therapy Effects. Contributors: Tiffany M. Field - author. Journal Title: American Psychologist. Volume: 53. Issue: 12. Publication Year: 1998. Page Number: 1278. Page Top of Form of 12 Bottom of Form or deep treatments in either the forearm or the quadricep muscle groups. Mild voluntary hand grip and knee extension contractions, in contrast, resulted in peak blood flow for brachial and femoral arteries, respectively, which were significantly elevated from rest. Shoemaker et al. concluded that light exercise was more beneficial than massage in increasing blood flow. Although the Doppler Ultrasound methodology is the most sophisticated way to currently measure blood flow, the study suffered from several methodological problems, including the use of relatively little pressure (light Swedish massage was used) and a very small sample size (10 participants). Another controversial literature involves sports massage. Several studies investigating the impact of massage on the reduction of delayed onset muscle soreness have concluded that massage was ineffective. However, in these studies massage was administered either immediately after exercise or 24-48 hours after exercise. In contrast, data from the Netherlands suggest that massage should be administered between one and three hours after the termination of strenuous exercise. Unlike the previous studies, Rodenburg, Steenbeek, Schiereck, and Bar ( 1994) found significant effects from administering the massage after exercise. They noted that the combination of a warm-up, stretching, and massage reduced some of the negative effects of exercise including the delayed onset muscle soreness and the creatine kinase activity in blood. However, some of their results were inconsistent, which may relate to their not having waited the full two hours to provide the massage. Their study was also confounded by combining three separate techniques including warm-up, stretching, and massage. Although suggesting that massage may be helpful for sports recovery and healthy individuals, the data also suggested the need for more tightly controlled studies that investigate the various parameters such as the time after exercise that massage is provided. Clearly, this variable alone contributed to significant inconsistency in the literature. Other popularly posed questions, including the lasting effects of massage therapy following the termination of treatment, the contraindications for massage therapy, and the question of which techniques are the most effective, have not been addressed in the literature. Regarding the question of lasting effects, there is no reason to believe that massage effects would continue after the end of treatment anymore than drugs, diet, or exercise effects would be expected to persist. Contraindications such as varicose veins and cancer have been followed by massage therapists, although physician researchers in those areas refute the need for those contraindications. Clearly more research is needed on these questions. In summary, these questions highlight the need for further research. Some of these questions have not yet been addressed, and many conditions have not been studied in methodologically sound ways. Replications are needed for the methodologically sound studies, and more mechanism studies will hopefully be conducted as more sophisticated measurement technology is developed. In the interim, at least the existing literature that is wellcontrolled suggests that massage therapy may be a promising treatment. Aside from the need for additional research and replication studies, there will need to be a shift in the social -- political attitude toward touch. Increasing numbers of schools are mandating that teachers not touch children even as early as the preschool stage. The incidence of child abuse and litigations against teachers has increased even with these mandates, and the incidence of sexual harassment cases against adults has also increased despite the disappearing use of touch in social communication. This may be an American phenomenon as social communication touch is still very present in European cultures like France and Italy, and touch therapies such as massage are one of the most popular forms of treatment in European countries to the extent that they are covered by insurance carriers. Similarly, physicians in Asian countries are heavily prescribing touch therapies, and, ironically, continuing to invite American "experts" to provide lectures and workshops in touch therapy techniques, such as infant massage. The physicians in Asia may be treating massage therapy as modem technology because they perhaps do not remember that the origins of touch therapies were in their own part of the world thousands of years ago. Touch therapies may have a greater chance than touch as social communication in the current U.S. climate as part of the healthy body trend along with diet and exercise. The increasing popular demand for alternative medicine may also help the return of massage therapy. In the interim, a larger body of methodologically sound research is needed to help inform this process. provides a reasonable indication of the metabolic load, even in many non-steady state conditions. Technological developments have helped to increase the range of methods available for monitoring energy expenditure. The use of doubly-labelled water (Westerterp and Saris, 1991) has improved the accuracy of measuring energy expended in sports event such as the Tour de France. It has not been utilised in occupational contexts where there is a habitually high outlay of physical exertion. In industrial circumstances a concern has been the periodic high efforts such as lifting and manual handling. In these cases the posture of the worker is of particular concern. Three-dimensional film analysis combined with electromyography has been a useful investigative tool for ergonomists in assessing the real demands of such activities. In team games the analysis of overall performance is complex and lends itself towards computer-aided study. Hughes (1988) described how notation analysis can be used to identify patterns of play. Such systems have now been extended to incorporate observations on individual players movements-which are quantified in terms of acceleration, speed and distance-and parameters of possession. The information gathered may be vast and require filtering before being used as feedback for coaching and playing staff. Training Training programmes embrace the concept of fitting the human to the task. Ideally training regimes are designed with specific goals in mind and can be evaluated in terms of reaching specific physiological targets. In practice, training goals are multifaceted and programmes vary in a progressive fashion throughout the annual cycle of competition. Furthermore, performance itself is mostly multivariate and requires an interplay of different physiological systems for optimal fine-tuning. Circuit-weight training, for example, can be employed for aerobic purposes as well as for effects on the musculoskeletal system. Plyometric training focuses on stretch-shortening cycles of muscle action as employed in bounding, hopping or drop-jumping regimes. A corollary of this form of training is referred to as delayed onset muscle soreness in which miscrodamage is caused to intramuscular structures. A prerequisite to plyometric training is a foundation of strength training. During the days in which delayed onset muscle soreness is experienced, exposure to deep-water running can help maintain fitness and alleviate muscle soreness (Dowzer and Reilly, 1998). Sports events such as triathlon call upon a combination of skills and specific fitness measures. In such cases special attention is needed with respect to how the training components complement each other rather than cause interference (Godfrey, 1998). Cross-training programmes may have particular benefits for health-related exercise, helping by virtue of their variety to maintain motivation and reduce the drop-out rate normally associated with a population of new exercisers. The down-side of physical training is when adaptation does not accrue and breakdown occurs. Over-training refers to the condition in which under-performance is experienced despite continued or even increased training. A vicious cycle of more training produces lower performance and chronic fatigue. The phenomenon represents the classical ergonomics model of task demands outstripping human capability to cope with the training load. -7- Questia Media America, Inc. www.questia.com Publication Information: Book Title: Advances in Sport, Leisure and Ergonomics. Contributors: Julie Greeves - author, Thomas Reilly - author. Publisher: Routledge. Place of Publication: London. Publication Year: 2002. Page Number: 7. Too Much, Too Soon Often the Cause of Muscle Soreness. Byline: Nicki Anderson Q: I have decided to get back to working out on a regular basis. However, I dread the soreness that often accompanies getting back into shape. Do you have any suggestions for avoiding that muscle discomfort? A: I often tell my clients not to jump back into exercise expecting to have the strength and stamina they did 20 years ago. It is not unusual for people to experience pain after using muscles that havent been used for a while. All too often its simply a matter of too much, too soon. If you combine too much weight, too many repetitions and most important, bad form without stretching, youll be going through ibuprofen like candy. It was once thought that next-day soreness was a result of lactic acid building up in muscle tissue. But today many exercise physiologists agree that the primary cause of delayed-onset muscle soreness is tiny tears that occur in the muscle as a direct result of high-intensity exercise - especially resistance training. After a hard workout, most people begin to experience soreness within 24 to 48 hours and in some cases, lasting for as long a week. When you lift weights, you basically "tear down" muscle tissue (these are microscopic tears - not like a "torn" muscle that is the result of an injury). The days following your workout, the muscle begins to repair itself, as long as you allow enough time and nutrients to recover. This rebuilding process creates muscle fibers that are bigger and stronger than before. Delayed-onset muscle soreness is generally most common with the novice or the "first of the year" exerciser. However, the more your body adapts to the workload you place on your muscles, the less soreness you will feel. If you continue to repeat the same workout, it will eventually cease to make you sore. Do keep in mind, however, that repeating your program over and over will reduce progress in the long run. Gradual overload is a key component to getting stronger and building muscle - but make sure the increase is gradual. Be sure that you recognize "normal" post-exercise soreness vs. injury-related soreness. Normal soreness generally lasts a couple of days and allows you to function, though you are aware that your muscles did something! Injury-related soreness will go beyond a week and not improve with time. At that point I would recommend a call to your physician. The key to preventing or minimizing soreness is using proper form, staying away from too much too soon, and making sure you adequately stretch, rest and fuel your body. Trainer Tip: High-fiber foods play a key role in keeping fat at bay and weight stable. Fiber lowers insulin levels and reduces your calorie intake. Fiber absorbs water and takes up more space in your stomach, giving you a "full" feeling rather than the chronic hunger that comes from eating high-sugar/low-fiber foods. Some great sources of fiber include bran cereals, oatmeal, beans, vegetables and fruit. - Nicki Anderson is a certified personal trainer, author and owner of Reality Fitness in Naperville. Contact her at RealityFitness1@@aol.com or see www.real-life-weight-loss.com. -1- Questia Media America, Inc. www.questia.com Publication Information: Article Title: Too Much, Too Soon Often the Cause of Muscle Soreness. Newspaper Title: Daily Herald. Publication Date: January 10, 2005. Page Number: 2. COPYRIGHT 2005 Paddock Publications; COPYRIGHT 2005 Gale Group Read More