Theory of Psychosexual Development - Essay Example

Development Stages of Ages 12 to Adolescents Name Institution Development Stages of Ages 12 to Adolescents Introduction Adolescence is a challenging time for most teens full of rebellion, confusion, and problems. Adolescence is the transition period between infancy and adulthood and includes ages 12 to 19. During this period, growth occurs at a tremendous speed thus most teenagers finding it challenging to adjust. However, most teenagers successfully navigate these changes without any problem. Adolescents experience some changes such as increased physical growth, emotional, biological, social, and neurological and brain, moral and cognitive changes. Puberty may, however, begin at different times, some have early development while others experience a little later although eventually they all catch-up. This essay will discuss the various development stages of adolescence Physical and biological stage Sigmund Feud in his theory of psychosexual development says that children go through different stages of sexual development. He discusses them as oral, phallic, genital, anal, and latency. The first stage is early adolescence which comprises of ages 11-13. There are common physical changes that occur in both sexes while some occur to one sex. Testosterone hormone in boys triggers the changes while estrogen hormone triggers the changes in puberty in girls. In this stage, there is a tremendous physical growth in both girls and boys. Their weight and height increase incredibly. Both sexes experience increased perspiration, hair growth on their bodies and production of oil in hair and skin. Early adolescents at this stage have a greater sexual interest; they become attracted to the opposite sex. Hauser-Cram, Nugent, Theis and Travers, boys will experience wet dreams, growth in penis and testicles, have broader shoulders and their voice becomes deeper. Wet dreams commonly termed as nocturnal emissions is harmless release of semen during sleep. Girls, on the other hand, have their hips widen, breasts become rounder and larger, their clitoris elongates, uterus enlarges, and labia thickens. Most girls begin menstruation at the age of 12 or 13 while some may incur delays. Some adolescent girls and boys can experience skin problems such as acne vulgaris or pimples (2014). In the middle stage of adolescent, between the age of 14-18, the physical growth continues for boys but slows down for girls. Mostly puberty is completed setting in for the late adolescence stage for ages 19-21. The young woman is now fully developed, but the young men continue showing some changes. Their weight and height continue to increase, body hair and muscle mass also increase. According to Freud theory of psychosexual, sexual desires and attraction emerges and if the adolescents involve in sexual behavior, it may result in childbirth and marriage. Freud believed that the development of a child’s personality is determined by the guardians to deal with that child’s basic sexual and aggressive desires. Cognitive stage Cognitive development involves the growth ability of child’s reasoning and thinking. Cognitive development has four stages which are assimilation, schema, equilibrium and accommodation according to the theory developed by Jean Piaget. Lee Vygotsky also developed a theory to explain cognitive development. Piaget argues that during the early cognitive development changes in mental operations are as a result of actions that individuals perform. Schema involves the person’s mental and physical steps to display a sense of knowing, understanding and obtaining. Assimilation stage includes people using new acquired ideas and information into their first stage (schema). The third stage is accommodation, where the individual changes the existing schema to new using the obtained information. Lastly, there is the equilibrium level where the individual tries balancing between accommodation and assimilation (Sheski, Chvallier, Lambert, & Baumard, 2014). During the cognitive stage, adolescents display a growing capacity for abstract thought. During the early ages, the knowledge of the world is limited to a child since he or she uses physical interaction to make decisions. Between the ages of 11-13, teenagers’ interests are in the present and have limited thought of the future. Both boys and girls expand their intellectual interests which they deem imperative to them. In Piaget's Cognitive development theory, he used different conversation experiments to explain this development stage from childhood to adulthood (Sheski, Chvallier, Lambert, & Baumard, 2014). Unlike a child who has to place people in order if placed in a task of comparing their heights, adolescents can perform the task without doing that. In the adolescent stage, the teenagers work regarding all possibilities before testing these possibilities. Using the conservation of liquids and a child he explains each stage in details. The child passes through the sensory-motor stage where his intelligence is demonstrated based on physical involvements. The child then passes the preoperational level where he fails to conserve. Mostly the child begins to converse in this stage and develops memory and imagination. The child will answer based on how an object containing the liquid looks, the thinking, and reasoning of the child is through in a non-logical way. At this stage, he will say one container has more liquid than the other because it is wider or taller. In the second stage, pre-operational, the boy tries conversing but does not pull off. He shows intuitive regulations, that is, the young boy starts to consider perceptual dimensions without simultaneously reasoning the dimension which makes him contradict his answers. At this stage, the child wavers in his reply. He does not settle for one answer. The third stage is concrete operations which go through the early stages of adolescence. Piaget believed that in this stage, the child incorporates the values of formal logic and uses identity argument, compensation and the argument of inversion to demonstrate conservation. At this stage, the child can generate a point of problem-solving without much hesitation. However, the child may incur some challenges using them spontaneously on any given task. In the late adolescence stage between the ages of 14-21, the teenagers can think their ideas through and delay gratification. Piaget explains formal operations in adolescence stage where they understand that theoretical constructs work better only in reality. Teenagers have formal operational thinking. The disturbances become a dreamer and have powers that can result to utopianism. The teenagers have increased concern for the future and become dreamers. Piaget believed that these powers brought some egocentric characteristics in teenagers us. Teenagers dream they can change the world in their thoughts. Piaget, however, believes that this egocentric nature ends when the adolescents enter adulthood (Hutchison,2010). The teenagers are able to limit and resist to their own thoughts. Overall, both young men and women have an unrelenting interest in moral reasoning. Vygotsky emphasizes more on culture as what affects cognitive development. He assumes that different cultures experiences different cognitive development stage. He believes that the children thoughts are influenced by the kind of environment they were brought up in and language plays a major role in this development. Social interactions guide adolescents in cognitive development. Vygotsky and Piaget share a common believe that teens are curious and will, therefore, get actively involved in their discovery and learning to develop new understanding. For language development and communication purposes, a child should be active in social interactions. According to Vygotsky the greatest tool a man can have is the language since it’s the means of communication in the world (Hutchison, 2010). Social-emotional development The social-emotional development stage is very crucial in a teenager’s life cycle. The teenagers realize what is happening to their physical body growth, and some may feel some awkwardness towards the change. Others worry they might not be normal. These teenagers will mostly struggle with the sense of identity. Erikson and Sigmund Freud had the same belief that personality went through a series of stages. Erikson had more interest on how the development and growth of a child were affected by social relationships and interaction. According to Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development everyone passes through a series of eight stages from childhood to adulthood. He explains identities, the ego identity, cultural or social identity and personal identity in his theory putting into consideration the impact of parents, society and other external factors on personality development. He explains ego identity as the conscious realization of self-developed through social interaction. In his theory, development of a teenager depends on the external factors, what one does. The ego identity changes constantly due to the information and experiences a child acquires while growing up. There are different values, ideas and beliefs identity different people and that is what helps mold and shape a young adult’s behavior. A young adult will struggle to find his identity, and that is how many adolescents try to fit in by struggling with social interactions. Acquiring the personal identity helps a person to become who they are as they grow. According to Erickson if the ego identity handling is well, the young adult will develop a sense of mastery, but if poorly managed, he or she will grow with a sense of inadequacy (Green, 2015). During this stage adolescents should be able to live by the expectations and standards of the society. Adolescents develop a sense of morality and can differentiate between right and wrong. Teenagers who have no one to guide them during this stage can experience upheaval and confusion some attempting to withdraw from responsibilities. A successful completion of this phase leads to fidelity in adulthood. According to Erikson, in the social stage, adolescents develop strong devotion to ideas and friends. The teenagers in this stage will consider their peer relationships very important and accept diversity. Moreover, during this stage, the influence of peers increases. Most teenagers reclaim their social and cultural customs as very important. Conflict with parents increases as the child is no longer a kid and realizes that parent are not perfect as he or she thought. The young adult will desire for independence as they believe they are mature enough to be on their own. The adolescent will become assertive and have the desire to take initiatives. Children in the social stage are eager for responsibilities. Erikson suggests that the child is given the chance to be responsible because if they have declined the opportunity, the child may develop a sense of guilt. The child may also grow up believing that they are never right which is wrong for an adult. He also suggests that achieve a positive outcome the child should get reassurance that it is not wrong to play some adult roles. In some cases, some adolescents show different reactions when stressed. Some will tend to behave in a childish manner while others become moody. In late adolescence stage, some major events take place such as a development of love relationships. The teenagers will engage in intimate relationships, want to work and have a social life all together. The young adult develops an increased emotional stability and thus increases concern for others. Adolescents develop intimacy, and they can relate to each other on a profound personal level. A sense of identity should be developed into this young adult, and they will not fear commitment in a relationship or feel isolated. Erikson says that to develop the sense of identity, healthy resolutions between parents and the child should be achieved. Healthy resolutions act as a foundation for identity. A child should believe in themselves and also have basic trust with others. It is common for adolescents to experience trauma, chronic stress or sedentary lifestyles which have a negative impact on their growth. The presence of support from the society and adults in their lives helps them deal with their emotions. Lack of social support does not help in stress management but instead have a negative effect when dealing with the teenagers’ emotional breakdown. Stress is believed to slow down maturity process in adolescents. Emotional development in adolescence describes fluctuating emotions experienced thus emotional maturity is important. During adolescence stage, youths may experience or witness violence in school, their community or home which may make them not feel safe. How one reacts to stress can be undesirable and thus cause major drawbacks in an individual’s life. Girls are transitioning during adolescence experience more distress than boys. Girls portray various conduct disorders and a lower self-esteem if faced with fluctuating emotions. Most display high rates of depression developing eating disorders, and unfortunate ones commit suicide. Every teenager both girls and boys are created uniquely, and each responds to fluctuating emotions in unique and different ways. Teens must learn the means to answer to unfamiliar and new situations. According to research, some teenagers take long to calm down while others cool down easily. Temperament influences how the teenager's response to stress. Adolescents who experience a difficult time coping with fluctuating moments are born more sensitive personalities. These adolescents require assistance to deal with their distressing moments. Moral stage As young adults mature, their level of morality understanding increases and mostly their actions and behaviors are closely related to their beliefs and values. During the early development stage of a teenager, peers significantly influence their decision making and reasoning. While adolescents value their peers, younger children value their family, religion, and culture and they affect the moral reasoning. During the preteen stage, the teens strive for popularity and so they are very vulnerable to pressure that comes from peer values. The child will choose some values in an attempt to ‘fit in’ in the group, and these values become part of them. A child will trust the parent more than the authority figure in the case of any consultation. At this stage, a child will develop moral progress being interested in what is best for the society. At the early adolescent stage, the child moral reasoning is doing right because he or she feels it is good for them. At the middle adolescent stage, moral reasoning changes to “it is morally right because our society or family believe it is.” Lastly at the late adolescent stage, the child has a developed a moral reasoning of doing right because it is fair (Schlinger, 2013). Keenan, Evans and Crowley, psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg explain the theory of moral development using reasoning provided by the children which he divides into three levels; conventional morality, post-conventional morality and critical evaluation each with two stages. He tells moral dilemmas stories and asks the children of different ages for their opinion. Kohlberg uses the answers provided by the children to discover their moral reasoning (2016). At the pre-conventional level of morality which comprises of children most of the age of nine, there is no personal code of morality. The reasoning of the children bases on the physical consequences of actions. The children at this age also make their decision based on the family, religion they follow or their cultures. The child is very careful not to break any rule to avoid punishment as most in this age believe that an individual risk punishment if they wrong. In this stage, the child also recognizes that every person has a different point of view. The kid is aware that there are other views different from the handling by the authorities. At the second level, conventional morality consisting of most adolescents, they start to internalize the moral standards of important adult role models. Youth in this stage recognize rules created by people like them and therefore start to question the authority. Individuals in this level care about how others view them and therefore the answers they give are about the acceptance of others. A child is only good to be deemed as good by the others. Adolescents reasoning is based on the standards of a particular group that the person in question belongs. Kohlberg views that a child is aware of the society rules and obeys law and order to avoid any guilt (Keenan, Evans, Crowley, 2016). During the late adolescence stage, most adolescents have established their beliefs and identity. As discussed in Kohlberg theory of morality is post-conventional is the last level. Individuals in this stage, base their moral reasoning on individual rights and justice. Most individuals hold a passionate feeling concerning their moral code. He notes that a person decision is based on principles which are self-chosen. Most individuals will pick their moral views from the people surrounding them while others will judge from their ethical principles which they believe in. The child comes to a realization that sometimes the rules will work against other people, but there is still the existence of a regulation that works for the right of the majority. Individuals, therefore, develop their rules and moral guidelines which may not necessarily fit the law (Schlinger, 2013). However, Kohlberg is sex biased in his theory. He claims that the males have an advanced moral reasoning than that of the females. He does not put into consideration the feminine voice of nonviolence and compassion which is familiar with the girls and how they socialize Brain and Neurological stages A healthy teenage brain is influenced by how a teen spends his or her time. Brain maturity in adolescence is affected by the environment surrounding the child, heredity, and also sex hormones. The child acts, feels and thinks according to her environment and uniqueness of his or her brain. A majority of teenagers get into drugs, and most are under the influence of alcohol. Parents and adults surrounding a child are an important part of the child’s environment and should guide and affect the child into building a healthy brain. Most individuals have rash behavior and neurobehavioral excitements during this period of their lives they just need guidance. During adolescence, a child can multitask, solve problems and process complex information. This is because of the strength exhibited by neurocircuitry. Furthermore, during adolescent stage, most teenagers can develop talents and have longtime interests and passion. Guardians should tame the range of activities their children are involved in as they tend to shape the type of brain the child takes into adulthood (Lerner, 2013). Brain development continues during adolescence from childbirth. It is an ongoing process. There are different patterns of brain development in male and females. This difference and the fact that boys have smaller basal ganglia is the reason boys are more prone to disorders such as ADHD. Girls, on the other hand, have extra protection against such disorders. Brain development in children can be affected by early experiences. These experiences act as a foundation for all future health, learning, and behavior of the child. Some teenagers may experience trauma, chronic stress or sedentary lifestyles which have an adverse impact on their brain maturation. Stress alters puberty timing and is believed to slow down maturity process in adolescents. The negative effects cause impair brain maturation which may last into adulthood. Stress is normal and a standard part of life in every human being. How one reacts to stress can be undesirable and thus cause significant drawbacks in an individual’s life. Girls transition during adolescence experience more distress than boys. Girls have high rates of conduct disorders and a lower self-esteem if faced with distress they display high rates of depression some developing eating disorders and unfortunate ones killing themselves. Pain can also affect the physical development in girls causing them to be shorter and heavier (Dishion, 2016). Experiences and genes interaction also shape brain development. The relationship between children and parents or other guardians in the society matters a lot in the elaboration of the brain. Boys who mature earlier have higher rates of criminal behaviors. If the kids grow up in the absence of appropriate caregiving, they may end up engaging in irresponsive behaviors. Another reason for delinquency actions can be because the early-matured boys are taller and usually more masculine than their age mates and feel they are superior than the rest. On the other hand, late-maturing boys show a poorer self-image and often portray low education expectations. In today’s lives, adolescents are competent of moral judgment and a complex reasoning. Every teenager both girls and boys are created uniquely, and each responds to distress in unique and different ways. Therefore, a parent should stay connected and closely involved in the life of his or her child to help the child in ways of coping with stress (Lenroot, & Giedd, 2006). (Lenroot & Giedd, 2006) Heinz Werner developed a theory of mental development. In his theory, he focuses on the child’s development, majorly on language use and perception. He suggests that the development of children proceeds from the lack of differentiation and portraying no sophistication to showing increased integration and differentiation. Werner also believed that different developmental cycles have the ability to repeat themselves at various stages of a person’s life. He emphasized that development in human beings is universal. As children are developing, their sleep patterns change since the brain produces melatonin which affects how they sleep depending on the time it is released. Some children go to bed late in the evening while some are awake until early in the morning. For growth and development, teenagers need to take new experiences and risk. A teenage brain is designed in a way that will push them to get involved in risk-taking behavior. The teenagers do not always possess self-control or great judgment and thus are prone to behaviors that put them at risk. The risk-taking behavior is as a result of the late prefrontal cortex development which aid in self-monitoring, decision-making and problem-solving. A teenager should choose risks which are healthy and beneficial such as traveling or sports instead of getting involved in theft or drug abuse (Hutchison, 2010). Conclusion Theories of development above suggest that interaction between caregivers and the children matters a lot during development. For example, those who form successfully intimated relationships in their early adulthood had strong personal identities during adolescent. It is important that the parents or guidance reassure their children during puberty that the changes they are experiencing are normal. Social nature of parents and any other people around a transitioning adolescent influences the social relationships the young adult experiences during development. References Dishion, T. J. (2016). Social influences on executive functions development in children and adolescents: steps toward a social neuroscience of predictive adaptive responses. Journal of abnormal child psychology, 44(1), 57-61. Green, M.G. (2015). Theories of Human Development: A Comparative Approach. North Carolina, US ;Psychology Press. Hauser-Cram, P., Nugent, J. K., Theis, K. M., & Travers, J. F. (2014). The development of children and adolescents. Wiley. Hutchison, E.D. (2010). Dimensions of Human Behavior: The Changing Life Course. Washington, DC: SAGE Publications, Inc; Fourth Edition. Keenan, T., Evans, S., and Crowley, K. (2016) An Introduction to Child Development. Ontario, Canada: SAGE. Lenroot, R. K., & Giedd, J. N. (2006). Brain development in children and adolescents: insights from anatomical magnetic resonance imaging. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 30(6), 718-729. Lerner, R.M. (2013). Concepts and Theories of Human Development. North Carolina, US: Psychology Press. Schlinger H.D. Jr. (2013). A behavior Analytic View of Child Development. Berlin, Germany: Springer Science & Business Media. Sheskin, M., Chevallier, C., Lambert, S., & Baumard, N. (2014). Life-history theory explains childhood moral development. Trends in cognitive sciences, 18(12), 613-615. Read More