Child Observations for Childs Behaviour and Development - Term Paper Example

Psychology: Child Observations for Child’s Behaviour and Development Name Affiliation Date Child Observations for Child’s Behaviour and Development (Psychology) Introduction Child observation is important for studying developmental changes in a child. Developmental psychology entails the physical, perception, cognitive, and personality and social areas (Cairns, 2000). In learning environments, child observation helps to determine whether a child needs evaluation by an Educational Psychologist for additional support in learning. Primary care physicians working with children also must deal with a great variety of emotional and behavioural challenges. Theories and contextual frameworks in researches have been formulated to explain similarities and differences in child development which is sometimes challenging. This report focuses on the outcome made from observing the two year old Raya. The results are explained as outcomes of observing child development in physical, cognitive, language, and social areas in relation to classic and contemporary theories and researches on the subject. THEORIES IN CONTEXT OF THE CHILD’S BEHAVIOUR AND DEVELOPMENT Various classical and contemporary theories have been used in psychology to explain stages of physical development, cognition, language, and play skills in children. The case of Raya as observed by the researcher can be explained through several of these theories, both classical and contemporary, and researches done on the subject. Behaviourism These are theories that emphasize on development through learning which involves conditioning of the human behaviour (Forrester & Jantzie, 1998). Freud’s psychosexual theory on physical development Freud’s (1946) psychosexual theory that illustrates the Id, ego, and superego and how they demonstrate of various psychosexual stages of child development. At two years and four months, the case baby girl Raya is at the anal psychosexual stage as described by Freud’s psychosexual theory. The erotic focus is on the anus and it is at this stage that the child’s development needs focus on toilet training. The observer reports from Raya’s mother that the child was able to go to the toilet by herself some two months ago for ten days. However, she now expects her mother to take her, and this shows the focus on toilet training at this stage. Psychosexual stages imply that the person is driven by urges and libidos such as sex and life instincts. Erikson’s psychosocial theory on child development Erik Erikson came up with his psychosocial theory which states that the human psyche goes through eight life crises in the entire lifespan. It is only the successful crisis resolution moments that lead to health functioning (Edwards, 2005). The challenges and demands of the crisis are specific to the life phases. In the case, Raya is at two years. A child in the category of 1-3 years is caught between autonomy versus shame and doubt. Resolution of crisis is linked to developing independence. For example, it is seen that Raya goes into a crisis when his father comes home with the neighbour’s child. Now, Raya is used to having his dad to himself and does not allow even her own mother to sit next to him. However, this newcomer has taken away Raya’s centre of attention as her mother also seems to focus her attention on the wants of the visiting child. Raya’s reaction at some point, for example, trying to get out of the house on her own, shows her thinking of developing independence where her parents seem partly focused on her. Also, her inconsistency in using the toilet on her own versus asking her mother to help her shows she is stuck between being autonomous and dependent, as of this stage of development. Pavlov’s classical conditioning and behaviour development Among the classical theories, classical conditioning is popular in describing behaviour during development. Classical conditioning is a theory founded by Ivan Pavlov who experimented on a dog. The research entailed pairing the sound of a bell with the presence of food causing the dog to salivate after repeated associations (Forrester & Jantzie, 1998). This developed into a habit such that even by the removal of food the dog still salivated at the sound of the bell. Thus, it was concluded that when a neutral stimulus-in this case a bell-is paired with an unconditioned response, it leads to an expected association and conditioned response. That is, the dog salivating at the sound of the bell. Thus, the bell becomes the classical stimulus leading to a conditioned response. Classical conditioning can be used to explain behavioural development in humans. Watson (1913) introduced the concept of behaviourism. In an experiment dubbed “Little Albert” Watson and Rayner (1920) conditions included white rat which implied ‘no fear’ while an iron bar induced fear on the child. After paring the bar with the white rat severally, the association later became that of the white rat equating fear (Forrester & Jantzie, 1998). Pavlov’s classical conditioning and Watson’s behaviourism can be used to explain the case of Raya. For example, it her mother observed that Raya immediately soiled her diapers when clean ones were put. There must be a conditioning in her behaviour that has learnt to associate the presence of diapers with the need to use the toilet. In addition to that, it is observed that Raya is used to playing with mobile phones such that she associates the TV’s wire to a mobile phone’s charger. Raya expects to see the charger with the phone as seeing the wire alone prompts her to ask about the whereabouts of the mobile phone. Raya behaviour is conditioned to believe that a wire is a mobile charger as this is what she is used to deal with. Although learning theories are useful for understanding some aspects of development, they have been criticized as being overly simplistic (Lye, 2001). This calls for further ways of describing child development by looking at contextual frameworks and constructivist accounts of developments as offered in researches. Most of these researches provide a further support of how the theories discussed can be used to explain development in children. Constructivism Constructivism, as a theory of learning and development focuses on a learner’s ability to mentally construct meaning of their own surroundings and to create their own learning (Forrester & Jantzie, 1998). According to constructivism, stages of development are inevitable although the timing of how particular events of development occur depends on timing effects as influenced by the environment. Researchers renowned for establishing the constructivist approach include Piaget and Vygotsky (Edwards, 2005). Whereas Piaget’s principles see the children as universal, learn through individual experience, and develop language as a by-product of thought, Vygotsky principles see the children as individuals, who learn through social experience and culture, and develop language used for thought. The frameworks however share the principles of the child being active and having the teacher as a guide and facilitator (Edwards, 2005). Piaget’s organismic approach as influenced by Darwin’s theory of evolution emphasizes on the study of the organism or individual (Edwards, 2005). Freud and Baldwin also have an influence on Piaget’s work. Using clinical methods, Piaget’s work focused on children’s errors as he intended to search for patterns of logic. In the research, the childhood period was highlighted as distinct or unique, as the child’s learning is motivated by the need for equilibrium. Constructivism explains that children are actively involved in their own cognitive development (Forrester & Jantzie, 1998). Piaget’s organismic approach asserts that children are born with few innate abilities and so they actively construct their knowledge as they curiously explore the world around them. From simple behaviours, development of this knowledge leads to complex behaviour in a similar trend as in the Darwinian’s evolutionary theory. Piaget’s research through observing intelligence tests shows that children do not use adult logic as they have separate and unique logic (Forrester & Jantzie, 1998). The knowledge is organized in pockets known as the schemata, and the intelligence in children enables development through adaptation. The child is able to modify the existing schema about how things happen through the process of accommodation. Piaget’s stages of cognitive development are sensorimotor (birth to two years), pre-operational (two to seven years), concrete operational (seven to eleven years), and formal operational (eleven and above years) (Forrester & Jantzie, 1998). In this case observation, Raya, has passed the sensorimotor stage and is now at the pre-operational stage of cognitive development. The pre-operational stage focuses on symbolic thinking and limitations in logic thinking. The semiotic functioning is also developed and the child has the ability to use internal images, symbols, and language, and thinking advances. In the case, it is seen that Raya’s semiotic functioning is well developed from her ability to digest questions and give correct answers, and also the ability to perfectly count and say the Alphabet in her first Arabic language. Raya’s phonetics and phonology is also fairly good for her second language, which is English. However, her logic ability is not well developed as seen from her inability to differentiate the TV wire from the mobile charger, but this is expected of this stage. The case fulfils Piaget’s pre-operational stage of cognitive development. Social ecology model Put forward by Bronfenbrenner, this model explains development of human beings based on social, cultural and environmental factors which bring differences in the behaviours and skills observed (Edwards, 2005). According to the principle of the maturational shifts, human beings develop the same way to each other, and even across cultures because they have similar human resources and experience similar biological challenges. The normative social shift on its part states that development differences in various cultures but similarities in same cultures are as a result of unique dependency on a culture’s resources and its challenges (Edwards, 2005). On the other hand, the non-normative shift implies that human beings develop differently from each other because of different individual resources and meeting different individual challenges (Edwards, 2005). The non-normative shift can be applied to the observations made on Raya in this case. The observer notices that Raya’s peer who came in with her dad is very dependent and she has to be assisted in doing a lot of things including eating, and using the toilet. Though of the same age group, Raya was able to do most of the things on her own and the fact that this other girl was dependent on her parents made Raya to react with behaviour of attention seeking. Attachment theory and role in development Attachment theory was put forward by Bowlby (1969) and it implies that motherly or carer’s love as important to mental health of children (Dykas & Cassidy, 2011). The critical period for attachment is prior two years by which a strong emotional bond is possible and the child grows in confidence (Grossman & Grossman, 2009). Various research studies have shown that insecure attachment can lead to anxiety, fear, and avoidant behaviour (Dykas & Cassidy, 2011). This affects how the child’s cognition and even physical development occurs. It also interferes with the child’s play skills in the future. In the case, there seems to be a strong attachment between Raya and her parents as exemplified by her paying attention to the mother and not the visitor, and also closely guarding her father. Raya however shows some form of insecure attachment when she puts up an attention seeking show as her mother attends to the visitor child. Raya goes to the extent of becoming physically violent by hitting the other child who seems to be taking everything of hers from the mother. This shows that the kind of attachment can influence the play skills to be either social or antisocial. The attachment to a mother is definitely far more significant than that to a father. The bond is mostly significant between the mother and the child because she is the primary care giver and there is ability of the bond to form in the birthing period (Dykas & Cassidy, 2011). Attachments can take place in various ways and at different developmental stages. These include eye contact, smiling, touching, clinging, crying, and calling out of which carers recognize as behaviours of communication (Grossman & Grossman, 2009). For example, in the case of Raya, she is always calling her mother whenever she wants anything done, from being helped to wash her hands after eating, to using the toilet, and also concerns about her doll. As much as there is someone else in the house, Raya’s attachment and confidence is directed to her mother to fulfil her needs. Nevertheless, the concept of the mother being the one forming a strong attachment with the child is highly debatable in literatures as concepts of orphanage and single-father parenthood are put in light in the contemporary society (Grossman et al, 2002; Rothbaum et al., 2000). It is argued that children can adjust to the present carer and form a stronger attachment than in the case of a biological mother (Grossmand & Grossman, 2009). It is the quality of attachment between the carer and the child that matters in the development and not simply on the basis of a person being the child’s mother (Rothbaum et al., 2000). Attachments are important as the children are predisposed to establish attachments, and attachment types can influence life during childhood and beyond (Dykas &Cassidy, 2011). Language development Language development is an impressive phenomenon as it is difficult to tell how a child learns to speak a language accurately (Vigil, et. al, 2005). The major theories that explain language development include biological theory, learning theory, linguistic theory, cognitive theory, and social interactionist theory (Vigil, et. al, 2005). The biological theory emphasizes on biological factors as basis for language development. Learning theory asserts that language development is a learning process like any other hence the environment has a role to play in it. Linguistic looks at innate structures which guide the development of language but are influenced by environmental experiences. Cognitive sees language as a by product of developing thought processes, while social interactionist sees language as required for development of thought processes and it emphasizes on social interaction as a medium for language learning (Johnston & Wong, 2002; Vigil, et. al, 2005). All these must have played a role in Raya’s adoption of language. In the case, it is seen that Raya is excellent at the Arabic phonetics, phonology, morphology and semantics and fairly good on the English ones. At two years, there is a sharp rise in the number of words that a child learns, hence a high vocabulary spurt (Johnston & Wong, 2002). There is increased complexity as compared to previous years although Raya shows more complexity on the Arabic language as opposed to the English language. This could be attributed to the fact that the Arabic is the first language she learnt while English is foreign and she is still in the process of learning it. PROCESS OF UNDERTAKING THE OBSERVATIONS The process of undertaking child observation begin with understanding why observational methods are best for studying child development, and identifying the aims and uses of the particular observation. Excellent observational skills were a necessity for accurate completion of this research. Prior to commencement of research involving observation, the research must seek ethical consideration. Ethical issues in observation involves respecting the rights of the person being observed (Sameroff, 2010). Ethics institutions such as BPS/BERA provide guidelines for researchers interested in carrying out observational studies. The researcher should ensure that there is informed consent or assent for the participant and should begin by seeking permission for the observation. The participant should be given the right to withdraw from part of the entire study as well as confirmation that the information given will be protected. Anonymity and confidentiality must also be assured, and there should be an agreement on whether the participant agrees to be recorded on videos or photographs (Sameroff, 2010). In the case, Raya is only two years old and gaining consent to go and observe her depended on her parents. It was therefore necessary to explain all the intention of the research to the parents, and also to explain to Raya to some extent that she could understand about the researcher’s presence in the house. Child observational methods, strengths and weaknesses Methods used in child observation include naturalistic observation, structured observation, interviews, and/or questionnaires, and meta-analysis. Naturalistic observation was widely used for this study. The method involves observing the phenomenon in its natural existence. The advantage of observational methods is that there is less manipulation of the subject as is common with experimental methods hence this increases the chance of getting accurate data. Narrative methods involve collecting data using open-ended questions which offer rich data. It is also flexible, and enables an easier way of data collection. On the other hand, narrative methods are time consuming, as a lot of time is needed for interpreting and analyzing the raw data. The disadvantage of this aspect is that it can lead to subjectivity (Sameroff, 2010). While undertaking an observational study, sampling of the participants is necessary. Sampling enables more specific means of observation hence reduces complexity (Fawcett, 2009). Sampling techniques involves sampling the time or event, or a combination of both. Time sampling involves recording the observed events at particular time intervals, and can be used with other narrative methods. On the other hand, event sampling includes identifying behaviour and noting its occurrence along with both pre and post behaviour details (Fawcett, 2009). Generally, the strengths of observational methods lie on directedness. The methods provide direct access to the subject of study rather than depend on some kind of self-report. This in principle avoids the wide range of problems associated with self-report, including participant bias. Another strength lies on the flexibility, diversity, and applicability of the natural observation method. Observation can entail diverse forms including informal and unstructured approaches yet also structured and standardised procedures. This helps to yield diverse yet associated type of data whether qualitative or quantitative (Fawcett, 2009). Additionally, the strength is in the provision of a permanent record using the child observation method. Much human social behaviour that is of interest to the researcher is highly available. The fact that all observation entails some form of recording, for instance through note-taking, means that a permanent record of events can be established. This therefore allows for further analysis and subsequent comparisons in future or across space and time. Observational methods can also be complemented with other approaches. The use of more than one data collection technique is done through a process called triangulation, and this is highly desirable as a confirmation research strategy (Fawcett, 2009). On the other hand, observation methods used in child study have disadvantages too. Weaknesses lie on practicability, which is one of the main disadvantages. The observation process can be very time consuming, and thus resource intensive. In this case, the researcher had to visit Raya’s place more than two times and had to stay for lengthy hours in order to record as much events as possible. Although observation is desirable to record certain research questions, it is not simply feasible for the researcher within the boundaries of time and resources. It is therefore necessary to pursue alternative strategies. Other weaknesses lie on observer bias and observer effect. In observer bias, there is susceptibility by the observer to show subjective bias, and this can undermine the reliability and validity of the data generated. The observer may record what he or she wanted or expected to see rather than record the event that occurred in the actual sense. In the observer effect, the presence of the observer may influence the behaviour of those being observed and hence the accuracy of the information is minimized. The method of observation is therefore made to be as unobtrusive as possible in order to reduce this effect. Bias, subjectivity and interpretation Bias, subjectivity and interpretation have been matters of concern in debates regarding observational methods. These have led to questioning of both reliability and validity as there is also increased rigour in assessment and reporting across research disciplines. Greig & Taylor (1999) argue that all research in many ways involves some kind of observation. As data is collected through observation methods, several factors can influence the observation including the observer himself, familiarity with the environment, timing of the observation, environmental conditions, times or seasons of the year, and changes in the immediate environment. For example, the observer’s can be biased towards his/her observations leading to concern on validity and reliability of the results. Generally, changes in factors that influence observation can lead to changes in results thus affecting the aspect of reliability. According to Brassard and Boehm (2008) multiple methods are necessary in observational methods in order to strengthen findings. Reflection Performing this observation has provided me with both an interesting and learning experiences. My enjoyment for the study was enhanced by the fact that we had learnt about child development theories in class, and so while I was out in the field, it was easier to connect the knowledge to the practical. Before learning the topic in class, I would observe children but in a laid back way and not with a need to understand why they behave in certain ways in certain ages. However, right now I can look at a child and have a good knowledge of what is happening to its development. This exercise has definitely enhanced my skills and knowledge on the subject of children. It is now easy to understand the psychology behind children’s actions and I will use the knowledge to assist mothers on whether they need to have their children seen by a specialist. Working with my subject was a very interesting and rewarding moment as I have gained a wider knowledge on the topic. Conclusion This report was based on an observational study of a two year old girl as the researcher studies child development. Human development is a unique process that takes place in various planes including physical, cognitive, social and emotional levels. By combining theoretical frameworks and primary studies through observation, it is easier for researchers to explain the process of human development. Behaviourism and constructivism approaches from both classical and contemporary studies have been used in combination to the observation to describe the child development process. Observational techniques in child study are an important aspect of many action research studies and cases. Child observation studies are important as they help to identify whether the child needs extra attention in matters regarding learning and healthy development. References: Brassard, M. R., & Boehm, A. E. (2008). Preschool assessment: Principles and practices. New York, NY: Guildford Press. Cairns, R., B. (2000). The Making of developmental psychology. In Damon, W. (2000). Handbook of Child Psychology. NY: Wiley (Volume 1: Theory) Dykas, M. and Cassidy, J. 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