Sport Psychology: Burnout and Overtraining - Coursework Example

Sport Psychology: Burnout and Overtraining The responses of individuals to their social environment can be interpreted using different methodologies. When referring to sports, a critical issue appears: can the exposure of athletes to risks be predicted? The answer should be positive. In current paper the causes and the effects of a risk related to sports is discussed: the exposure to burnout and overtraining. The review published in regard to this subject leads to similar assumptions: individuals participating in sports are exposed to burnout and overtraining but for different causes. Also the level of the above risk is depended on a series of factors, such as the motivation type, the cohesion and the gender. Since the causes of burnout and overtraining can be traced, their control is feasible. A series of suggestions have been incorporated in this study for limiting the risk of burnout and overtraining in sports. Sport Psychology: Burnout and Overtraining The criteria on which human decisions are based are not standardized. The personal perceptions and experience are usually key factors in the decision-making process. Other factors, such as the social environment can also affect the decisions of individuals as members of a particular society. Current paper is related to sport psychology. Emphasis is given to burnout and overtraining, as aspects to social psychology. The academic literature published in this field is reviewed in order for all aspects of these two concepts, i.e. of burnout and overtraining, to be revealed. Through the review of the literature it was made clear that burnout and overtraining are common phenomena in sports. At the same time, it has been revealed that the conditions under which burnout and overtraining can appear are difficult to be precisely described. For this reason, an effort has been made to identify the key characteristics of human behavior in regard to sports. Particular reference is made to the motives for which individuals participate in sports. After identifying these motives, the potentials of individuals to be exposed to burnout or overtraining when being involved in sports have been made clear. In order to understand the characteristics and the effects of burnout and overtraining as related to sports it would be necessary to refer primarily to the reasons for which an individual is attracted to a particular sport. Then, the excessive involvement of the individual in the particular activity would be explored and evaluated, especially at the level that it can lead to burnout or overtraining. Medic, Mack, Wilson & Starkes (2007) focused on the potential relationship between athletic scholarships and motivation in sports. They noted that in the case of sports, motivation can have two different forms: it can be either intrinsic or extrinsic (Medic, Mack, Wilson & Starkes 2007, p.293). In the context of the intrinsic motivation an individual participates in a specific sport activity mainly for pleasure (Medic, Mack, Wilson & Starkes 2007, p.293). In opposition, the extrinsic motivation theory is based on the view that each individual is likely to participate in a sport activity when a specific goal is to be achieved (Medic, Mack, Wilson & Starkes 2007, p.293). Winning an award is a common example for explaining the role of extrinsic motivation in sports (Medic, Mack, Wilson & Starkes 2007, p.293). The involvement of motivation in sports was also examined through empirical data. Scholarship and non-scholarship athletes, in total 116, from USA and Canada were asked to respond to a questionnaire. Particular emphasis is given to the potentials of scholarship to act as a motive for participating in sports. It was proved that the reward with an athletic scholarship can be a key motive, along with intrinsic motivation, for an individual to participate in a specific sport (Medic, Mack, Wilson & Starkes 2007, p.303). Also, males were proved to be more vulnerable to extrinsic motivation, compared to females, when having to decide their involvement in a particular sport (Medic, Mack, Wilson & Starkes 2007, p.303). In other words, motivation is a key factor influencing the participation of individuals in sports. It is assumed that the excessive involvement of individuals in sports, a phenomenon that can lead to burnout and overtraining, is a problem related to the inability of individuals to appropriately evaluate their potentials to respond to specific motives. Another aspect of burnout and overtraining in sports is provided in the study of Yan & McCullagh (2004). The above researchers emphasize the relationship between culture and motivation especially in regard to various physical activities. A survey was conducted among individuals, children and adolescents, belonging in the following three categories: ‘Chinese, America born Chinese and American’ (Yan & McCullagh 2004, p.378). It was proved that Chinese children and adolescents were more likely to participate in physical activities for ‘socialization and wellness’ (Yan & McCullagh 2004, p.386). As for the American participants, these tend to participate in physical activities mainly for competition, i.e. for increasing their ability to compete others (Yan & McCullagh 2004, p.386). On the other hand, Chinese born in America are likely to participate in such activities for other reasons, such as travel (Yan & McCullagh 2004, p.386). The findings of the research developed by Yan & McCullagh (2004) lead to the following assumption: the motivation of individuals in regard to sports is not based on standard criteria. Indeed in the research developed by Yan & McCullagh (2004) it has been made clear that cultural influences on motivation in regard to physical activities can be strong, especially when referring to individuals living in areas where culture is highly valued. This fact further leads to the assumption that the potential risk for burnout or overtraining in sports can be increased under the influence of the cultural characteristics of the individuals involved. The findings of Yan & McCullagh (2004) in regard to sports activities and motivation are not opposed to those of Medic, Mack, Wilson & Starkes (2007). In fact, both these studies lead to the same assumption: the participation of individuals in sports is highly depended on motivation; the motives used though are not standardized. The motives of sport participation are also explored in the study of Kilpatrick, Hebert & Bartholomew (2005). The above researchers have tried to identify the potential differences between sport participation and exercise, especially in regard to their motives. The students of ‘a university in the Southeastern United States’ (Kilpatrick, Hebert & Bartholomew 2005, p.88) were asked to complete a survey referring to the issue described above. It was proved that the participation in exercise tends to be more frequent than the participation in sport (Kilpatrick, Hebert & Bartholomew 2005, p.89). It was also proved that the motives related to sport participation are different from those involved in exercise. More specifically, the participation in exercise is more likely to be based on extrinsic motives, such as ‘appearance, strength and weight management’ (Kilpatrick, Hebert & Bartholomew 2005, p.90). As for the motives used in the sport participation, these seem to be intrinsic, such as ‘social affiliation and wellbeing’ (Kilpatrick, Hebert & Bartholomew 2005, p.90). The above study highlights an important issue: sport participation is differentiation from participation in exercise. This fact should be taken into consideration when evaluating burnout and overtraining. When the above two conditions are related to sports, then they need to be evaluated by referring to intrinsic motivation. If they are related to exercise, reference should be rather made to extrinsic motives, as factors leading to burnout or overtraining. According to the issues discussed above, the responses of individuals to sport activities can be effectively evaluated if the motives used are identified. Thus, burnout and overtraining can be possible avoided if appropriate measures are taken in advance. Since the human responses to sport participation can be predicted, then the chances for burnout or overtraining could be also predicted if the motives of individuals involved are made clear. The above view is verified in the study of Halbrook et al. (2012). In the above study reference is made to the role of gender as a factor influencing ‘motivation and team cohesion in sports’ (Halbrook et al. 2012, p.62). At a first level, it is noted that ‘motivation type and perception of team cohesion can influence persistence and learning’ (Halbrook et al. 2012, p.62). As a result, motivation and cohesion can be related to burnout and overtraining. For example, individuals who are highly motivated but have not fully understood or do not support cohesion as an element of sports are highly exposed to burnout. These individuals are likely to continuously develop themselves, being highly motivated, but without having the support of their team. In sports, such practice can easily lead to burnout or overtraining. The empirical research developed by Halbrook et al. (2012) also revealed that the performance of individuals in regard to ‘social and task cohesion is related to the level at which these individuals are intrinsically motivated’ (Halbrook et al. 2012, p.70-71). It should be also noted that gender has not been found to have a critical role in the ability or the willingness of individuals to promote cohesion (Halbrook et al. 2012, p.71). In regard to overtraining the findings of the research developed by Halbrook et al. (2012) have the following implication: those individuals who are intrinsically motivated can be protected more effectively from overtraining since they would be more willing to follow the rules of their teams. This practice could protect these individuals from overtraining, even if such benefit does not appear immediately. Particular reference should be made here to the study of Koivula (1999) where the power of gender to influence sport participation is explored. In the research developed by Koivula (1999) it is revealed that gender can be a factor influencing both ‘the motivation type and the time spent on sports’ (Koivula 1999, p.375). In other words, the study of Koivula (1999) promotes the idea that gender can influence sport participation, an assumption different from that developed in the study of Halbrook et al. (2012), as analyzed above. Still, the two studies are not necessarily opposed. A middle-view would be quite possible; the gender of an individual could influence his participation in sports but only under specific terms. For example, such view would be applicable for individuals living in societies where equal opportunities are given to males and females in regard to sport activities. The power of gender to influence the behavior of individuals in regard to sport participation is also reflected in the study of Jonason (2007). The above researcher aims to show the differences between males and females in regard to motivation for engaging in sport activities. It has been revealed that males are more motivated ‘by increasing their muscles while women are more motivated by losing weight’ (Jonason 2007, p.10). In other words, men and women have different motives in regard to sport participation. Based on the findings of the study of Jonason (2007) the following assumption can be developed: men can be equally exposed to burnout and overtraining as women. In fact, the targets of both men and women as related to sports seem to require equal effort in order to be achieved. The study of Koivula (1999) reveals an important issue in regard to the participation of males and females in sports: males who participate in sport activities are more likely to be motivated by competition while for females appearance seems to be the key motive for sport participation (Koivula 1999, p.372). According to the above finding, men are more exposed to burnout or overtraining than women, a view that it is partially opposed with that of Jonason (2007). However, the two studies emphasize on different aspects of the participation of men and women in sports. When exploring burnout or overtraining in sports, particular emphasis should be given to the causes under which an individual would be exposed to such risk. In practice, it has been proved that the responses of individuals to sports are highly depended on the behavior of their coaches. This issue is extensively analyzed in the study of Martin, Rocca, Cayanus & Weber (2009). The above researchers have tried to check whether ‘the use of Behavior Alteration Techniques (BATs) and verbal aggression can affect the performance of athletes’ (Martin, Rocca, Cayanus & Weber 2009, p.227). A survey has been conducted among ‘the students of a Midwestern University, USA’ (Martin, Rocca, Cayanus & Weber 2009, p.231). In total, 249 students participated in the research (Martin, Rocca, Cayanus & Weber 2009, p.227). It was proved that those athletes who are highly exposed to negative BATs tend to underperform, compared to athletes who are not exposed to such practices (Martin, Rocca, Cayanus & Weber 2009, p.232). It has been also proved that the use of verbal aggression ‘is negatively related to player motivation’ (Martin, Rocca, Cayanus & Weber 2009, p.232). In this context, it can be assumed that those athletes who have to face negative BATs and verbal aggression are highly exposed to burnout or overtraining, at the level that the communication between the athlete and his coach is quite poor. In other words, the study of Martin, Rocca, Cayanus & Weber (2009) highlights an important aspect of burnout or overtraining in sports: in such activities, burnout or overtraining are highly depended on the behavior of the coach. In this context, coaches are considered to have major responsibility in the expansion of phenomena of burnout or overtraining in sports. In the context of the issues highlighted above, burnout or overtraining can be related to motivation, cohesion or coach behavior. Still, there are other factors that can highly affect burnout or overtraining. Sport competitiveness can be highly involved in burnout or overtraining. In a survey conducted by Frederick-Recascino & Schuster-Smith (2003) it has been revealed that athletes in different sports can have different sport competitiveness level. In the above survey the performance of two groups in regard to sport competitiveness was measured (Recascino & Schuster-Smith 2003, p.240); it was proved that the sport competitiveness level of cyclists ‘is positively correlated to interest motivation, appearance motivation and time spent on the specific sport on a weekly basis’ (Recascino & Schuster-Smith 2003, p.248). As for the other group, the exercise group, its sport competitiveness level is highly depended not only on interest motivation and appearance motivation but also on competence motivation (Recascino & Schuster-Smith 2003, p.248). From a similar point of view, the study of Boyd, Weinmann & Yin (2002) focuses on the relationship between intrinsic motivation and physical self-perceptions, as factors influencing sport participation. Through the empirical data collected by the above researchers it was proved that intrinsic motivation to exercise can be influenced by five different factors, including ‘self-confidence, physical condition and attractive body’ (Boyd, Weinmann & Yin 2002, p.7). It was also proved that ‘’the self-perceptions of physical condition can highly impact intrinsic motivation for exercise’ (Boyd, Weinmann & Yin 2002, p.11). On the other hand, ego orientation was proved to be irrelevant to intrinsic motivation for exercise (Boyd, Weinmann & Yin 2002, p.12). In other words, physical condition is most critical factor than ego orientation in regard to sport participation. In this context, the exposure of an individual to burnout or overtraining is more likely to be influenced by the physical condition of the individual rather than by its ego orientation. In practice, this means when the perceptions of individuals in regard to their physical conditions do not reflect the reality, the chances for burnout or overtraining are significant. The potential involvement of ego orientation in achievement motivation, as related to sport participation, is explored in the study of Tod & Hodge (2001). The above researchers aim to examine the potentials of ego orientation to influence achievement motivation of individuals. In this way also, the influence of ego orientation in sport participation, which is based on achievement motivation, could be identified. The study of Tod & Hodge (2001) was based on empirical data, collected through a survey. The survey revealed that moral issues are quite important in sports. In fact, moral issues can highly affect sport participation in the following way: if the practice followed by the coach of a team is against the rules, then the credibility of the participation of the team involved could be doubted (Tod & Hodge 2001, p.315). Still, achievement motivation, as related to a specific sport activity, can influence moral reasoning: an individual may decide to ignore certain ethical rules so that the target set is achieved. For example, in order to win a game a coach may suggest to his players to keep the ball so that the chances of opponents to score are eliminated (Tod & Hodge 2001, p.315). In any case, the study of Tod & Hodge (2001) revealed that the willingness of individuals to violate moral rules in the context of sport participation is depended on these individuals’ ego orientation (Tod & Hodge 2001, p.321). At this point, the following problem appears: can burnout or overtraining during sports be depended on the race or the age of individuals involved? The study of Egli, Bland, Melton & Czech (2011) can be used for addressing this issue. In the research developed by Egli et al (2011) it has been made clear that there are certain factors that can highly influence ‘motivation of physical activity’ (Egli et al. 2011, p.399). Identifying those factors could help to understand the causes of burnout and overtraining in sports. The empirical research related to the above study revealed that age is critical in regard to sport motivation (Egli et al. 2011, p.402). More specifically, it was revealed that ‘younger than 20 years old are more motivated by health pressure while those above 20 years old tend to be motivated by affiliation’ (Egli et al. 2011, p.402). In addition, it has been made clear that whites are influenced by different motives in regard to exercise than blacks: ‘whites tend to exercise for managing stress or for leisure while blacks are more likely to exercise for competition’ (Egli et al. 2011, p.402). In other words, race and age can be factors influencing motivation in regard to sports. As a result, race and age can be considered as factors influencing sport participation, at the level that sport participation is based on motivation. In regard to burnout and overtraining the above finding has the following implication: younger people seem to be more exposed to burnout and overtraining than people over 20 years old who control more effectively the time spent on sports. From the same point of view, blacks can be more exposed to burnout or overtraining since they tend to emphasize on competition, a practice that often leads to burnout or overtraining. According to the studies presented above, there are certain individuals who are more exposed to the risk of burnout or overtraining than others. Indeed, it has been proved that athletes who have to face the negative behavior of their coaches are more exposed to burnout or overtraining than those athletes who are empowered and inspired by their coaches. Moreover, it has been made clear that burnout or overtraining is related to many factors. For example, burnout or overtraining has been related to motivation type, the perceptions of individuals for cohesion and the type of sports activities involved. The above facts can lead to the following assumptions: the ability of individuals to control their exposure to burnout or overtraining is differentiated. In fact, it seems that the success of such efforts is not guaranteed. There are individuals who are not highly affected by the negative behavior of coaches but also those who cannot perform well when having to face verbal aggression by the coach. In the same way, highly motivated individuals may fail in supporting cohesion, a fact that could result to the high exposure of these individuals to burnout or overtraining. When team or task cohesion is effectively promoted then the risks for burnout or overtraining are kept at low level, since the communication between athletes and the coach but also among athletes is quite effective. In other words, burnout or overtraining is a common phenomenon in sport settings worldwide. The research developed for this study revealed another important finding: the responsibility for the potential appearance of burnout or overtraining belongs not only to the social environment of the athlete involved, for example to his coach, but also to the individual himself. At the level that burnout or overtraining can be influenced by motivation type or perceptions on cohesion, the responsibility of an athlete for burnout or overtraining cannot be rejected. Also, the potentials of individuals to face this phenomenon can be limited, especially because of the intervention of personal perceptions and of the social environment. Still, there are certain practices that can control the expansion of burnout or overtraining: a) the promotion of communication among individuals participating in team-based or individual-based sports, b) the standardization of the criteria on which the evaluation of coaches’ behavior in sports will be based, c) the increase of control by the state; in most sports the control of the state is just typical or non-existent. The improvement of the framework on which such initiatives are based should lead to the control of expansion of burnout or overtraining, even if the long term. In any case, it is required that the perceptions of individuals on sports are alternated. Reference is made specifically to the perceptions of individuals in regard to the characteristics and the effects of burnout or overtraining. The introduction of changes in curricula worldwide would be a key means for achieving this target. At the same time, the participation of individuals in schemes developed by their coaches should be based on specific criteria. The alignment of these schemes with the personality and the personal values of each athlete would be an indicative criterion for the athlete to agree to participate in the specific schemes. References Boyd, M., Weinmann, C. & Yin, C. (2002). The Relationship of Physical Self-Perceptions and Goal Orientations To Intrinsic Motivation for Exercise. Journal Of Sport Behavior, 25(1), 1-18. Egli, T. R., Bland, H., Melton, B. & Czech, D. (2011). Influence of Age, Sex, and Race on College Students Exercise Motivation of Physical Activity. Journal Of American College Health, 59(5), 399-406. Frederick-Recascino, C. & Schuster-Smith, H. (2003). Competition and Intrinsic Motivation in Physical Activity: A Comparison of Two Groups. Journal Of Sport Behavior, 26(3), 240-254. Halbrook, M. E., Blom, L., Hurley, K., Bell, R. & Holden, J.(2012). Relationships among Motivation, Gender, and Cohesion in a Sample of Collegiate Athletes. Journal Of Sport Behavior, 35(1), 61-77. Jonason, P. K. (2007). An Evolutionary Psychology Perspective on Sex Differences in Exercise Behaviors and Motivations. Journal Of Social Psychology, 147(1), 5-14. Kilpatrick, M., Hebert, E. & Bartholomew, J.(2005). College Students Motivation for Physical Activity: Differentiating Mens and Womens Motives for Sport Participation and Exercise. Journal Of American College Health, 54(2), 87-94. Koivula, N. (1999). Sport Participation: Differences in Motivation and Actual. Journal Of Sport Behavior, 22(3), 360-380. Martin, M., Rocca, K., Cayanus, J. & Weber, K. (2009). Relationship between Coaches use of Behavor Alteration Techniques and Verbal Aggression on Athletes Motivation and Affect. Journal Of Sport Behavior, 32(2), 227-241. Medic, N. L., Mack, D., Wilson, P. & Starkes, J. (2007). The Effects of Athletic Scholarships on Motivation in Sport. Journal Of Sport Behavior, 30(3), 292-306 Tod, D. & Hodge, K. (2001). Moral Reasoning and Achievement Motivation in Sport: A Qualitative Inquiry. Journal Of Sport Behavior, 24(3), 307-327. Yan, J. & McCullagh, P. (2004). Cultural Influence on Youths Motivation of Participation in Physical Activity. Journal Of Sport Behavior, 27(4), 378-390. Read More