The Behaviourist Concept of Operant Conditioning - Assignment Example

Operant Conditioning and Phobic Disorders Operant Conditioning Outline I. Human behaviour, in the behaviourists’ point of view, is a phenomenon associated with reflexes, stimulus-response patterns, and reinforcers in the development of behaviour. II. B.F. Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning suggests that learning is a result of a change in observable behaviour A. The concept of reinforcement strengthens a particular behaviour or desired response 1. Positive reinforcement involves the presentation of a favorable outcome to strengthen behaviour. 2. Negative reinforcement involves the removal of an unfavorable outcome to strengthen behaviour B. The concept of punishment functions to weaken a particular behaviour or response 1. Positive punishment involves the presentation of an undesirable event to weaken a particular behaviour 2. Negative punishment involves the withdrawal of a desirable outcome to weaken a behaviour. III. Phobic disorders are marked with irrational of a particular object or situation. A. Phobias are said to be linked with genetics and is likewise regarded as a learned behaviour. B. Treatment for phobic disorders include drug administration and cognitive-behavioural therapy IV. Cognitive-behavioural therapy in the treatment of phobias functions to allow the individual to be comfortable with the feared situation by way of constant exposure to the feared object. Operant Conditioning and The Treatment of Phobia Discussion Human behaviour, according to behaviourist John Broadhus Watson (1914), is a phenomenon that can be understood and explained by way of reflexes, associations with stimulus and response, and the influence of reinforcers on behaviour. Furthermore, his isolated theory excluded the influence of desires, goals, and other mental terms in his take on the human behaviour. He was more concerned with the objective manner of studying behaviour and emphasized in going a deeper research about the introduction of a stimulus as a trigger to a physiologic response. Along with Watson, another behaviourist who made a great contribution to the world of Psychology was Burrhus Frederick Skinner, or B.F. Skinner. He was a behaviourist who studied comparative psychology. Compared to Watson, his ideas were less extreme. He acknowledged the existence of the mind but elaborated that the objective study of human behaviour based on observable behaviour is better than dealing with the internal facets. Considered as one of the greatest theorist of behaviourism, he is responsible for coining the term “operant conditioning” and likewise developing the theory of operant conditioning (Wagner, 2009). Expanding from the former ideas of fellow theorists Thorndike and Pavlov, Skinner’s theory asserted that learning was a result of a change in observable behaviour (Skinner, 1938). In this theory, he described the consequences of behaviour in the succeeding occurrence of a particular behaviour. He stated that the changes in behaviour are outcomes of an individual’s response to certain events, referred to as stimuli, existing in the environment. The response will then result to a particular consequence which may manifest in the form of an action. Once this pattern of stimulus and response is reinforced or rewarded, the response will then be conditioned to occur as triggered by the stimulus. One important element in the theory of operant conditioning is reinforcement. Defined in the context of Skinner’s theory, reinforcement or reinforcer, refers to any circumstance or event that would increase or strengthen a desired response or a particular behaviour (Levine, 1999). It can be in the form of a verbal praise or through direct rewards like food or money. In line with reinforcement, the ideas of positive and negative reinforcement are introduced. Positive reinforcement refers to favourable events or results that are awarded after the manifestation of a particular behaviour. In positive reinforcement, the behaviour is strengthened due to the experience of a positive or favourable outcome. For instance, a caged rat that presses the lever then receives food will be likely to press the same lever again to achieve the same outcome. In this situation, food is the positive reinforcement that motivates the rat to perform the behaviour; thus, strengthening the behaviour. On the other hand, negative reinforcement refers to the elimination of unfavourable circumstances from occurring upon the manifestation of certain behaviour. In negative reinforcement, the behaviour is strengthened by the satisfaction experienced from the removal of the unfavourable event. As an example, a caged rat that is given mild electrical shock pushes the lever and sees that the discomfort is gone as the shock is stopped. Hence, the rat will then press the same ever again upon experiencing a similar electric shock. The behaviour will then be strengthened by the negative reinforcement, which is the elimination of the shock. Another key concept in Skinner’s theory is punishment. In the theory’s definition, punishment, as contrary to reinforcement, is the giving of an undesirable or adverse outcome or circumstance that results in the weakening of a particular behaviour (Wagner, 2009). Similar to reinforcement, punishment is also classified as positive and negative. Positive punishment deals with conferring an undesirable event to a manifested behaviour. As an effect, the particular behaviour will then be weakened. Using the example of the rat inside the cage receiving mild electric shock, if as the rat presses the lever, it then receives another shock, it will be less likely to perform the same action of pressing the bar again. The behaviour is then weakened. Positive punishment is also referred to as punishment by application. In contrast, negative punishment will mean elimination of a certain desirable event or outcome after the occurrence of certain behaviour. Also known as punishment by removal, this can be presented in the situation wherein the rat in the cage presses the bar and finds no outcome whatsoever in his attempts. Since no reward awaits the creature, he will not be motivated to repeat the same behaviour. The concept of operant conditioning has been utilized for quite a number of purposes. Among which include programmed instruction, animal training, clinical studies, and therapeutic applications. In this research, the focus is on the therapeutic aspect of operant conditioning, more specifically in the concept of operant conditioning as used in behavioural modification, particularly in the treatment of phobic disorders (Wagner, 2009). Before going deeper in to the discussion, it is proper to first have an insight on phobic disorders. A phobic disorder is described as an anxiety disorder marked by irrational fear of an object, person, or situation. Such fear is associated with the persistent avoidance of the particular object person, or situation. In phobic disorders, the individual holds the recognition of the fear to be irrational. However, he or she finds him or herself powerless to control the fear. The exact cause of the disorder is not known but it has been linked to factors such as genetic susceptibility, as shown in twin studies, and conditioned response. The behavioural theory proposes that phobias are results of a conditioned response wherein an individual learns to relate the phobic object or event with undesirable and unfavourable feelings, the avoidance of which serves to reduce the anxiety, reinforcing the phobia (Isaacs, 2006). With reference to what has been earlier discussed, it can be said that phobias develop in the pattern of operant conditioning. As the phobic behaviour of avoidance yields a favourable outcome of reducing anxiety, it is therefore reinforced. There are various treatments for phobic disorders. Among these treatments include the use of medications such as antidepressants and SSRI’s. Another is the use of a short-term psychotherapy called cognitive-behavioural therapy. This therapy roots from the ideas of learning behaviour as well as behaviour therapy and cognitive therapy, and acknowledges the interconnectedness of thoughts, beliefs, feelings, and behaviour. The therapy suggests that the negative automatic thought after exposure to the specific feared situation lead to the behavioural reaction, which is the phobia (Schoenstadt, 2008). Graduated exposure is the key component of cognitive-behavioural therapy. This involves the gradual exposure of an individual to the feared object or situation. The idea is for the patient to learn that the phobic behaviour is excessive and irrational after repeated exposure to it. The patient will eventually adjust to the situation and develop less anxiety upon constant exposure. For example, someone who fears dogs may begin his therapy initially with exposure to pictures of dogs then to the sound of a barking dog. As he progresses in his treatment, he can be put in a room with a small puppy in a cage, then to a puppy in a leash. Succeeding sessions may then involve exposure to different sizes of dogs during various situations until the patient’s fear totally subsides (Dena Rabinowitz, n.d.). The therapy involves two behaviourist techniques – flooding and systemic desensitization. Flooding is a technique involving the exposure of individuals to a high stimulus of the feared object until adjustment develops, which is the concept used in graduated exposure. Systematic desensitization on the other hand involves the teaching of relaxation techniques to help relieve the anxiety, which will then involve letting the patient utilize such techniques in overcoming the feared situation (Fritscher, 2009). In treating phobic disorders by way of cognitive-behavioural therapy, the idea of operant conditioning is used as the individual is taught to learn a new behavioural response to a certain stimulus by way of reinforcement. In the case of phobias, the reinforcement is the reduced anxiety gained after gradual and constant exposure to the feared object or situation. Evidently, therapists can use operant conditioning in the treatment of phobias by providing the necessary stimulus and reinforcers in every session with the client. The therapist can make a stimulus and reinforcement schedule. The situations or objects by which the client is very fearful of can be simulated in the counselling room and set to a gradual exposure so that the client’s psychological system will be shocked to the point that another anxiety will develop. This then entails a careful study by the therapist to ensure client’s safety. Whenever, the client successfully overcomes his fear of the gradual stimulus presented, and then the therapist can give appropriate rewards that the client will truly feel good about. This will be facilitated by the therapist until the client realizes that the bigger reward is the loss of irrational fear or phobia over that certain situation or event. References Dena Rabinowitz. (n.d.). Retrieved November 6, 2009, from http://cbtny.com/phobias Fritscher, L. (2009, February 7). Therapy Options For Phobias. Retrieved November 6, 2009, from http://phobias.about.com/od/treatment/a/theroptphobias.htm Isaacs, A. (2006). Mental Health and Psychiatric Nursing. New York: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins. Levine, A. (1999, November 24). Operant Conditioning Basics. Retrieved November 6, 2009, from http://www.mcli.dist.maricopa.edu/proj/nru/opcond.html Schoenstadt, A. (2008, October 23). Phobias. Retrieved November 6, 2009, from http://anxiety.emedtv.com/phobias/phobias.html Skinner, B. F. (1938). The Behavior of Organisms. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Wagner, K. V. (2009). Introduction to Operant Conditioning. Retrieved November 6, 2009, from http://psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/a/introopcond.htm Watson, J. B. (1914). Behavior: An Introduction to Comparative Psychology. New York: Henry Holt. Read More