Applications of Operant Conditioning at School - Essay Example

appears here] appears here] appears here] appears here] Applications of Operant Conditioning at School There is much evidence for the value of "operant conditioning". Many see this approach as balancing the need to teach and achieve academic skills with the need to acquire personal and life skills. Furthermore "operant conditioning" has been found to be effective in including children with disabilities in mainstream classrooms. A key point is that learning any skill involves many cognitive processes. An individual's motivation to learn and their belief in their ability to learn will affect how they learn. It is essential that learning be a positive experience, as unpleasant emotional associations will interfere with the learning process. Operant conditioning can be defined as a type of learning in which voluntary (controllable; non-reflexive) behavior is strengthened if it is reinforced and weakened if it is punished (or not reinforced) 1 . It states that environmental contingencies or the environment's 'reaction' to an individual's behaviour controls that individual's behaviour. The most prominent figure in the development and study of Operant Conditioning was B. F. Skinner. Historical Background Information As an Undergraduate he was an English major, then decided to study Psychology in graduate school. Early in his career he believed much of behavior could be studied in a single, controlled environment (created Skinner box - address later). Instead of observing behavior in the natural world, he attempted to study behavior in a closed, controlled unit. This prevents any factors not under study from interfering with the study - as a result, Skinner could truly study behavior and specific factors that influence behavior. During the "cognitive revolution" that swept Psychology (discussed later), Skinner stuck to the position that behavior was not guided by inner force or cognition. This made him a "radical behaviorist". As his theories of Operant Conditioning developed, Skinner became passionate about social issues, such as free will, how they developed, why they developed, how they were propagated, etc. 1 Skinner state that actions that are followed by reinforcing consequences are more likely to re-occur, and that actions that are followed by unpleasant or punishing consequences are less likely to re-occur. Again this might seem deceptively simple. However, the theory becomes more complicated when one realizes that what constitutes punishment and reinforcement differs depending on the individual. Skinner also noted that the situation within which the learning took place had to be taken into account. In analyzing and trying to account for behaviour, the psychologist, as behavioural detective, needs to take into account the antecedent (what happens immediately before the behaviour), the behaviour, and the consequences of the behaviour. This method is known as the ABC approach (A for antecedent, B for behaviour and C for consequences). There are five basic processes in operant conditioning: positive and negative reinforcement strengthen behavior; punishment, response cost, and extinction weaken behavior 2. Positive Reinforcement The term reinforcement always indicates a process that strengthens a behavior; the word positive has two cues associated with it. First, a positive or pleasant stimulus is used in the process, and second, the reinforcer is added (i.e., "positive" as in + sign for addition). In positive reinforcement, a positive reinforcer is added after a response and increases the frequency of the response. 2 Negative Reinforcement The term reinforcement always indicates a process that strengthens a behavior; the word negative has two cues associated with it. First, a negative or aversive stimulus is used in the process, and second, the reinforcer is subtracted (i.e., "negative" as in a "-" sign for subtraction). In negative reinforcement, after the response the negative reinforcer is removed which increases the frequency of the response. (Note: There are two types of negative reinforcement: escape and avoidance. In general, the learner must first learn to escape before he or she learns to avoid.) 2 Response Cost If positive reinforcement strengthens a response by adding a positive stimulus, then response cost has to weaken a behavior by subtracting a positive stimulus. After the response the positive reinforcer is removed which weakens the frequency of the response. 2 Punishment If negative reinforcement strengthens a behavior by subtracting a negative stimulus, than punishment has to weaken a behavior by adding a negative stimulus. After a response a negative or aversive stimulus is added which weakens the frequency of the response. 2 Extinction No longer reinforcing a previously reinforced response (using either positive or negative reinforcement) results in the weakening of the frequency of the response. 2 Example of Positive and Negative Reinforcement Both Billy and Bob always hand work in on time. The motivation for Bob is the fact that his teacher smiles at him. Bob finds this particularly rewarding. Bob is being positively reinforced for 'handing in' work. Billy on the other hand lives in dread of his teacher and hands in work promptly to avoid her legendary wrath. Billy's 'handing in' behaviour is being negatively reinforced. The question is which type of reinforcement is more beneficial in the long run Schedules of Reinforcement Another factor that Skinner outlined as being important to the learning process was that the schedule of reinforcement made a difference. Behaviour that was rewarded on an intermittent or variable schedule was more resistant to extinction. Do you know anyone who buys lottery tickets How often do they win Winning would probably be on a variable interval schedule, that is, some weeks an individual might win 10, but then they might go for weeks or months without winning any money. As the reward for buying lottery tickets is on a variable interval schedule such behaviour is difficult to extinguish or in other words difficult to stop. Shaping Skinner further noted that complex behaviour could be broken into smaller component parts and that these component parts could be selectively reinforced. The process of selectively reinforcing more and more component parts of a complex skill is called shaping. 3 Evaluation of Operant Conditioning Skinner's theory of conditioning was built upon laboratory experiments with animals such as pigeons and rats. Skinner was interested in establishing general learning principles. One criticism involves the extent to which research based on animals can be applied to people. It has also been argued that this approach takes a mechanistic view of humanity and sees individuals as robotic slaves to the environmental consequences of their actions. The realization that tangible and observable rewards were not necessary for learning to take place led psychologists, in the 1960s, to look at other theories such as that of Piaget. Learning theory does not take into account hidden, unobservable cognitive and emotional factors involved in learning. This can be considered as both a weakness and a strength. There are some instances where it is not possible to ask an individual what they think or how they feel, and in these cases analysis of behaviour can lead to successful interventions and educational strategies. Applications of Behaviourism Skinner believed that behaviour was controlled by environmental contingencies-that is, the likelihood that a person would repeat a certain unit of behaviour in the future depended on the consequences of exhibiting the behaviour in the past. Reinforcement would increase the likelihood of repeating the behaviour while punishment would decrease the likelihood of repeating the behaviour. Skinner was interested in applying principles of learning to the classroom. Various forms of reward and punishment exist in the classroom. For example, in the early years children get stickers and stars when they complete their work. In secondary schools there are usually systems of merit points. These would all constitute rewards. In terms of punishment there is the good old detention, standing outside the head's office, suspension and exclusion. Beyond these intuitive uses of learning theory what Skinner was concerned with was whether the principles of learning were being effectively used to promote learning. 3 One application of learning theory in the classroom would see the teacher analyzing the disruptive behaviour of a student in terms of antecedents, behaviour and consequences, in the hope of determining both an explanation for the behaviour and a way forward. An Example of Analyzing Behaviour Mrs Moody teaches year 3. Mrs Moody's problem is Johnny Smith. Johnny never remains in his seat. He is constantly wandering around the class disrupting the lesson. He crawls under the tables. He jumps on the tables. Yesterday he brought a spider into the class and put it down Samantha Johnson's jumper. Needless to say Samantha was hysterical. Mrs Moody is at her wits' end. She asks another teacher, Mrs Peabody, to come in and observe Johnny, recording his disruptive behaviour in terms of antecedents (what happens before the disruptive behaviour), the behaviour and the consequences of the behaviour. To Mrs Moody's surprise an interesting pattern emerges. What became apparent to Mrs Moody and Mrs Peabody was that Johnny always misbehaved when he was being ignored. An analysis of the records seemed to suggest that the attention he received from the other children and the teacher was positively reinforcing his disruptive behaviour. What Mrs Moody needed to do was to change the environmental contingencies, so that Johnny was being reinforced by attention when he was actually behaving. Skinner was opposed to the use of aversive methods, such as punishment, in the classroom, for while aversive methods tell an individual what not to do they do not tell an individual what they should do. Skinner argued for the utilization at all times of positive reinforcement in shaping desired responses. Returning to our example of Johnny, Mrs Moody too thought that perhaps shaping of appropriate behaviour would be a suitable way forward. Evaluation of Applications Skinner believed that reinforcers in school were administered without the due consideration needed to make learning most effective. One of Skinner's most useful applications in classroom practice was strategies that involve the teacher in consciously analyzing the behaviour of the students. However, this approach takes time and involves careful observation and record keeping. Skinner believed that children need to be active in the learning process, not for the reasons Piaget or Bruner would give, but that they need to be active in order to receive constant evaluation and reinforcement. This is not always achievable in a large classroom where the teacher's attention may be focused on a few students at any one time. Skinner was also concerned with the concept of whole class teaching in that this would mean that the teacher would concentrate on the average student whilst ignoring the individual needs of the slower or more able students. Skinner believed that the way forward was with teaching machines. His teaching machine would allow individuals to progress at their own rate; it could transmit basic information and therefore free the teacher for meaningful exchanges. Skinner created some crude teaching machines, which he used in his own teaching. However, they were cumbersome and expensive and never caught on. The advent of modern personal computers creates the perfect medium for the type of programmed learning that Skinner envisioned. In terms of teaching the curriculum, Skinner felt that teachers needed to be clear regarding what is taught, to have clear objectives, to teach first things first and to allow students to progress at their own rate. One area, which proved controversial, was Skinner's belief in errorless learning that is that a programme should avoid the possibility of the individual experiencing failure. Others have argued that this does not reflect the real world and that it is important that students learn to cope with failure and set-backs positively. Summary The behaviourist approach to learning focuses on observable behaviour, rather than hidden, unobservable cognitive factors. A classical conditioning view of learning highlights the importance of conditioned emotional responses. Operant conditioning sees behaviour as being controlled by environmental contingencies. According to the theory the likelihood of a person engaging in any given behaviour depends on the past consequences of that behaviour, that is, whether that behaviour was punished or reinforced. Two useful applications of operant conditioning include an ABC (antecedent, behaviour, and consequences) analysis of behaviour and shaping of appropriate behaviour. Bibliography 1. http://www.alleydog.com/101notes/conditioning.html 2. http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/behsys/operant.html 3. Maribeth Gettinger, Stephen N. Elliott, Thomas R. Kratochwill, 1992. Preschool and Early Childhood Treatment Directions; Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Supplemental Bibliographical Information David Cohen, 1977. Psychologists on Psychology; Taplinger Publishing Donald Moss, 1999. Humanistic and Transpersonal Psychology: A Historical and Biographical Sourcebook; Greenwood Press Irwin A. Hyman, James H. Wise, 1997. Corporal Punishment in American Education: Readings in History, Practice, and Alternatives; Temple University Press J.E.R. Staddon, D.T. Cerutti, 2003. Operant Conditioning; Annual Review of Psychology W. David Pierce, Carl D. Cheney, 2004. Behavior Analysis and Learning; Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Read More