Series of Stages in Human Development - Essay Example

Human Development---an essay on Psychology Any stream of knowledge is ultimately the study of human development. Be it literature, history, sociologyor psychology all of them meet in the analysis of human development from their respective angles. It is more of the evolution of the mind and its subsequent effect on the individual’s behaviour that could be recorded as human development. Since the psyche of every individual is different from the other, development cannot be generalised. Thereby, philosophers have tried to generalise external and internal forces that influence human mind and sparks reaction in the form of action. This act of reaction, which may be termed as behaviour and which considerably varies from individual to individual (Feldman, 2007), is the way to trace mental development. This paper would make an attempt to figure out the different aspects of human development based on the theories of Freud, Erickson, Piaget. Freud is the pioneer psychologist to have dealt with the investigation of human mind. He formulated a three tier psychic structure each with a potential power to cast either active or passive influence on the human mind. It consists of the conscious, subconscious and the unconscious. Freud had categorised his concepts of the Ego and the Superego under the conscious. The Id comprises of the subconscious and the unconscious. The conscious, subconscious and unconscious all work together in thought processing and conflict resolve. (Salkind, 2004, 116). The theory of the ego, superego and the id has become the basis of a number of psychological strategies in psychoanalytical treatments and experiments. According to many theorists the ego is the moderator between the two extremes of the superego and the id. (Salkind, 2004,117). A study of this theory explains the behavioural disjuncture in an individual. A proper functioning of the three levels helps to maintain the psychic balance. With this theory a lot of the mysteries about different psychic phenomena like dreams and hallucination could be explained and understood. It was an advanced step to clear some of the superstitious beliefs associated with them. Moreover Freud’s dream theory is also based on the concept of the unconscious. Though his conclusions have no empirical back up, yet by virtue of their universal relevance existed and are still popular today. However, the Freudian theory of the psychic order provides no scope for the other valid mental developments like emotions, reasoning, sense of morality and justice. It is mainly focused on the source of development and does not explore the function and role of these other crucial developmental aspects. But his theory of the unconscious is resourceful in understanding and dealing with developmental issues. It is especially of much help to clinical psychology which aims to cure patients suffering from normal developmental patterns. He discussed of a five step developmental pattern of the human mind from infancy to adulthood. Each step characterises a notable mental change in the response to the physical needs. This theory states the mind-body synchronisation in the biological development of human beings. In his theory of the psycho-sexual phases of development he explains the pattern of development from infancy to adulthood. He emphasizes how different organs become a medium of sexual pleasure till the final stage is reached when sexual pleasure is limited to the genitals only. According to him the first stage is the oral stage between ages 0-2 years. During the anal-stage (2-4 years) a child loves to control his defecation. The phallic-oedipal stage (3-6 years) is the most controversial as it speaks of the child having sexual fantasies about his mother. How far it is true or has been testified is yet not confirmed. This is followed by the latent puberty stage and finally the one arrives at the genital stage. From his theory it is evident that Freud held sexuality to be the motivating force behind every human thought and action. In most of the cases it is a repression of the libidinal that decides the mental growth of an individual, creating undue tension within his behavioural modes. This repression is said to be relieved with the achievement of the desired object. In this respect Freud has also drawn attention to the pleasure principles that in a way defines our love for pleasure. “The pleasure principle states that the primary goal of mental operations is the achievement of pleasure through gratification.” (Salkind, 2004, 118) According to Freud it is this aspect that actually affects one’s socio-cultural development. In his depiction of the developmental stages from infancy to maturity Freud has drawn too much on sexuality being the invariable cause of behavioural aspects. Any deviation in behaviour he links up with repressive libido. The neo-Freudians and feminists have countered Freud claiming that he has not taken into consideration the socio-cultural forces and gender factor in determining the nature of development. This is supposedly one of the chief drawbacks of the Freudian theory. As against the psycho-sexual development of Freud, Erickson a self-declared follower of Freud had his eight steps psycho-social development theory. However it is believed that much of Erickson’s deductions based on observation has come from his own life as he himself suffered from the psycho-social problem of identity crisis. This sense of alienation was a result of his mother’s several marriages and his inability to cope with the changes. Erickson’s model of the psychosocial development mainly emphasises on childhood. The first stage which he called trust vs mistrust begins from birth till 12 months. The characteristic of this stage is that the infant’s world is in the arms of the parents. The infant cannot trust anyone other than the parents. He feels most secured with his parents. At this stage it is essential that the child is provided with the security and protection that he demands in order to develop into a mentally healthy and confident human being. An otherwise case often results in building in the child unnecessary fear and suspicion of getting hurt which in the long run makes him mistrustful of others. According to Evans (1967, 12): “Through what he called a repetition compulsion, reflections of these early patterns of the first five years continue to be operative in later life. We thus would understand a man’s later life as a reflection of his successive conflict resolutions in his early life.” The second stage between 1-3 years is about the development of the emotions of shame and doubt. It is the stage of being self-conscious. At this stage a child tries to be independent of the parents and exercise autonomy. When met with failure in any venture they react like an adult. It is therefore on the parents to keep their child’s confidence intact. The child should not be scolded or discouraged from trying out new things that engages his interest. The parent should encourage him and support him in every new venture. However, “the shift from the first to the second stage also marks one of those difficult human ‘crises’. For just when a child has learned to trust his mother and to trust the world, he must become self-willed and must take chances with his trust in order to see what he, as a trustworthy individual, can will. He pits his will against the will of others-even that of his protectors.” (Evans, 1967, 19) Erickson called the third stage between 3-6 years initiative vs guilt stage. It is a more concrete version of the previous stage. At this stage the child wants to take initiative to prove his mettle but if his enthusiasm is hindered or countered he would lose self-belief and suffer from the guilt of being worthless. (Erickson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development, 2004) Therefore the child is in the psychic state when he can plan out goals and purpose. The child starts envisaging “goals for which his locomotion and cognition have prepared him. The child also begins to think of being big and to identify with people whose work or whose personality he can understand and appreciate. ‘Purpose’ involves this whole complex of elements.” (Evans, 1967, 25) The fourth stage, which is the industry vs inferiority stage, is a take off from the previous stage. This stage of development spanning from the age of six years to puberty is about how the child is getting conscious of his ego and developing a sense of self-esteem. At this stage the child requires constant positive feedback from teachers and parents so that he does not fall into depression caused due to a sense of inferiority. The fifth stage is about identity as against role-confusion. This stage stretches throughout adolescence. During this phase the youth is faced with unresolved questions about his identity. He is in search of his true identity but faces conflicting forces both within and outside. As this is the stage of transition from adolescent to adulthood, the youth wants to feel independent. Parents’ role is most crucial at this stage. By showing respect to their child’s views and opinions they would help him to built faith in him. The stage, which is known as intimacy vs isolation, depicts the inclination of the individual in forming long-term relationships and commitments. This tendency to have and be a part of social network is a positive sign in the mental development of an individual. Desiring to be left alone and constantly shunning company is expression of problematic behaviour and questions the normal development of the individual. The seventh stage is called generativity vs. stagnant stage. It is a stage in adulthood when life has come to a full circle with both personal and professional achievements to fall back and relish on. In one’s life it is also a stage that might generate a conscious feeling of self-complacency. In this context Erickson in comparing the achievements of the two leaders had said: “Comparing the techniques of violence which emerged under Hitler in Germany and those of non-violence in Gandhi’s India there must be some profound cultural differences which accounts for the emergence of such dramatic differences in the techniques of leadership which the people will tolerate.” (Evans, 1967, 73) His book on Gandhi won him the Pulitzer Prize. (Grinker, 2001, 1) The final stage, which mainly concentrates on old age, is called the ego vs despair stage. According to Erickson, this is a stage of reflection of the past and assessment of one’s achievement. As it is a sedentary phase and is more of thoughts than action it might call for unnecessary depression on the part of an individual, depending on his past success or failures. Erickson’s theory of mental development is humanitarian in approach as it recognizes the development and consecutive influence of emotions in one’s life. It is said that his theories are in relation to much of his life. In this context example from Erickson’s own life needs mention. Cole’s (1970, 404) study Of Erickson’s life revealed that among his three children Kai was a sociologist, Sue was a psychologist and Jon was an artist. But Erickson tried to hide the existence of his son Neil, a victim of Down’s syndrome who died at the age of twenty-two, from others except Kai. (Friedman, 1999). His emphasis on the psycho-social grounds could be explained from his life history. It was not merely study material for him but his theory was more a probing into the truth of human development. This approach in a way limited the psycho-social theory. His theory concentrated only on emotion as the guiding force for development. He took up each of the conflicting concepts as the constant against which the reactions of the individual from childhood to adulthood are measured. The fallacy of the theory lies in the generalising of the stages and the concepts. There are unnumbered and undefined human emotions that cannot be bound within any concrete shape but which play as active agents in determining the choices of life and have the power to change life. In this respect Erickson’s classification of the eight stages on abstract concepts could be questioned. Neither Erickson nor Freud mentioned one of the most essential forms of development, the cognitive development. It was provided by Piaget. It was Jean Piaget whose theory of cognitive development gave a distinct idea about the behavioural development of children from birth to the age of twelve years. His theory was most significant in determining child psychology. He speaks of four distinct stages beginning with sensorimotor stage. According to Piaget, at this stage a child learns manipulation of objects but object permanence is still an elusive concept for him. At the end of this phase by the time the child reaches two years of age he becomes aware of the permanence of objects retaining the image of the object in his memory. This revelation gives him sense of security. The next stage, which is called the pre-operational stage occurring between the ages of two to seven years, is about the child’s interaction with the object world around him through language. It is the stage when language development is at its highest. But the two aspects, which he cannot distinguish, are animate from inanimate in terms of characteristics and the idea of quantity being independent of shape and size. The child can only respond to one stimulus at a time. The concrete operational stage is when the child learns to understand the possible existence of multiple stimuli and can focus on all simultaneously. Beginning from the age of seven years it lasts till twelve years of age. The child is aware of bigger concrete concepts like grouping, various forms of currency but the child is yet to develop abstract thinking. The child cannot conceive of the existence of something, which has no concrete example. The last stage as framed by Piaget called the formal operation stage extends beyond twelve years of age. At this stage the child who is approaching towards adolescence can actually conceptualise abstract thoughts, can understand the cause and effect sequence and build up his own theories and opinions of the world. (Motor and Cognitive Development in Psychology, 2004) This is the most author backed model of development with valid proofs. This theory has made a niche for itself in educational psychology. It serves as the basis for framing curriculum for small children in school and help teachers to understand their mental maturity and capacity and work out ways to teach them in accordance to these factors. Kohlberg has forwarded the other development theory. His is altogether on a different and new level of interpretation of the development of the mind. His theory is the most often cited. Kohlberg’s theory is based on the moral development of mind from early childhood to adulthood. According to him the first stage is about pre-conventional morality or self focused morality that exists till nine years of age. At this stage morality exists in terms of rules laid down by the parents and a transgression means to have negative consequences. It is defined by the necessity of obedience on the part of the children. The second stage, which is called conventional stage, or other focus morality stage is about following the rules set by the parents and teachers. At this stage it is all about living up to the expectations that the adults have set on the child. Morality makes sense to him in terms of abiding by the laws. The third or the final stage is called post conventional stage or higher focused morality stage. At this stage the individual as an adult understands that the interpretation of morality is relative and varies according to varying social, cultural, political and even geographical forces. On the basis of it he builds his own sense of morality, which has no fixed entity and might change with changes in perception on the part of the individual. (Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development, 2004) Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning is more or less based on Piaget’s theory, which concentrated essentially on two stages of moral development. The central focus lies upon the development of moral sensitivity and reactions in children to ethical issues. Moral development as suggested by Kohlberg is a continuous process, taking place over the entire life span. His observations and inferences in the theory are based upon the responses he received on several moral dilemmas presented before a group of children. (Kohlberg, 1973) Pillsbury (1920) critiqued Kohlberg’s theorization saying that a very unique approach of Kohlberg lies in the fact that it does not lay stress on the ages I order to categorize his developmental stages. Thus this kind of categorization is mostly based on cognitive structures and orientation of the intellect rather than the biological development. However transition plays an important role in this respect. Transitions directly affect the psychology or the mental state of development. The experiences brought about by each of the transitions affect the mind and influences are learning process as well as way of thinking. Our decisions are largely influenced by these transitions we face in life. Transitions can be positive or negative depending on the effects they generate. They may be planned or unexpected. Transitions may be difficult but they have a positive side as they teach us useful lessons. Successful movements through transitions involve the experience of a range of feelings (anger, anxiety, confusion, numbness, self doubt), beginning to accept the change, acknowledge the need to let go of the past and accept the future and a feeling of hope for the future and develop an optimistic view. Situational and organizational transitions often put a person in the conventional mode of moral reasoning where societal expectations and interpersonal needs guide our behaviour. However Kohlberg does not show the difference between moral behaviour and moral reasoning. Both are different perspectives because what we reason is not necessarily what we act like or conform to. As opposed to Erickson’s theory where emotional development is given priority, Kohlberg’s theory does not give importance to interpersonal feelings, sentiments and emotions. It emphasizes on and projects the concepts of justice and idealism. Kohlberg’s theory might be criticized on the grounds of lacking in emotional dimensions but it explains a large extent of the behaviourist traits observed in individuals. Also the applications that this theory may find are of great use to address the social issues. The approach is a new dimension added to the stages of growth theory and any other conventional approach that associate age with the procedure of learning and development. A study of human development is more a study of Developmental psychology, which is directly concerned, with the study of families and children and therefore in the social context it has found the most extensive application and relevance. Psychological changes observed in children can be understood from the observations of changes that take place with age and progress of the child. (Bornstein and Lamb, 1984) The stages of growth theory suggested by Erickson are helpful in this regard. Erickson’s psychosocial analysis of development has been used while categorizing the stages. Every stage is characterised by the combination of positive and negative aspects of the crisis period. This psychosocial development takes place along with the physical development of the child. (Hoare, 2002) The teachers may use the theories suggested effectively while forming and structuring the lesson plan and understanding the crisis faced by the children. The crisis situation may be well managed because of this. Thus it could be concluded that learning, which is the first step of development, is often defined by a psychologist as a permanent change in the behaviour brought about by experience. (Feldman, 2007) One may find learning as behaviour, which is observed and learnt via experience which comes in one’s life through the stages of aging as the developmental process itself. (Sperry and Prosen, 1996) When we refer to cognitive development we need to define it as a process in which the perception of a child about the world alters. Feldman quotes Piaget when he says that the stages vary not just on the grounds of quantity of information gathered at every stage but essentially on the quality of knowledge and understanding as well. The child’s development is based on cognitive changes rather than that of age and varies with each individual child. In discussing the different theories it becomes evident that the huge field of human development cannot be explained by one theory. It could best be understood by the assimilation of all as each takes up a different point of view and meaning of interpretation. In this connection it would be right to say that Freud, Erickson, Piaget and Kohlberg have made immense contribution in enlightening the process of human growth and development. Reference 1. Bornstein, Marc.H. and Lamb, Michael. E. (1984) Developmental Psychology: An Advanced Textbook, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates 2. Coles, R. (1970). Erik H. Erikson: The growth of his work. Boston, MA: Little, Brown 3. Erickson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development. (2004). Retrieved 22nd august 2008 from http://allpsych.com/psychology101/social_development.html 4. Evans, Richard I. Dialogue with Erik Erikson, Harper & Row, 1967 5. Feldman, Robert.S. (2007). Essentials of Understanding Psychology, McGraw Hill: Boston 6. Grinker, Richard Roy. “Identitys Architect: A Biography of Erik H. Erikson”, American Studies International, Vol. 39, 2001 7. Hoare C.H., (2002), Erikson on Development in Adulthood: New Insights from the Unpublished Papers 8. Kohlberg, L. (1973). "The Claim to Moral Adequacy of a Highest Stage of Moral Judgment". Journal of Philosophy 70: 630-646 9. Pillsbury, W.B. (1920), The Essentials of Psychology, Macmillan Company 10. Sperry, L. and Prosen, H. (1996). Aging in the twenty-first century: A developmental perspective. New York: Garland Publishing,Inc. 11. Salkind, Neil, J. (2004). An Introduction to Theories of Human Development. London. Published by SAGE. 12. Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development. (2004). Retrieved 22nd august 2008 from http://allpsych.com/psychology101/moral_development.html 13. Motor and Cognitive Development in Psychology. (2004). Retrieved 22nd August 2008 from http://allpsych.com/psychology101/development.html Read More