The Idea of Personality Development - Literature review Example

Personality Theories by The idea of personality development is crucial for psychology that is the reason why numerous various hypotheses aim to clarify it. Personality incorporates unique traits of character, responses to the external world, feelings, patterns of behaviour, and perceptions of the world that assist in constructing relationships with others. Understanding of the concept of personality is central for working in all other directions in psychology and for counseling patients. That is why the research of this phenomenon does not stop and there constantly appear new and more progressive theories. Each psychologist adheres to certain answers to the question of personality theory and its development. There exist a number of theories of personality which are recognized among psychologists today. The most influential theories are psychodynamic, analytical, humanistic, cognitive, and behavioral which explain personality in a different way. According to Engler, most theories aim to determine several important aspects in personality theory and are based on philosophical dilemmas: To understand how various personality theories were developed it is important to differentiate between two approaches to the personality: nature and nurture. Some therapists believe that hereditary qualities and inborn characteristics play the principle part in person`s behaviour while others suggest that it is upbringing and environment change the individual Another important question is whether a person has free choice or his behaviour is determined. Some psychologists claim that person has a free will and it is possible to understand person`s motives and behavioral patterns while others consider that unconscious or biology play influence person`s life to a great extent. There is a dilemma among the psychologists which concerns person`s uniqueness. There are discussions whether it is possible to perceive every personality as unique or it is necessary to apply general approach to all people because of their common nature. Person-centered approach underlines the necessity to treat every person in a special way while apologists of behaviorism claim that common principles are the most reasonable in understanding a personality. The question of stimuli which makes people act is the next important aspect of discussions. Behavioral theories suggest that people play passive role in their life being driven by society and environment while cognitive psychologists emphasize humans` active role in life. Some scholars consider that human beings are not involved into the process of their change substantially while others more optimistic think that learning has a primary effect on personality development (Engler, 2008). Speaking about nature and nurture it seems these notions are important because they allow a person to become who he really is eventually. Nurture, such as upbringing, social institutions, influence a personality from birth to turn him into a product of the environment. Those psychologists who claimed that nature plays the main role in personality development usually underline the importance of genetics or general human drives. For example, Freud thought that aggression is an inborn quality of every person that influences human behavior generally (Freud, 1991). Freud was the first theorist who pointed to the role of unconscious in personality. Within the psychodynamic theory the personality is a system of sexual and aggressive motives, on the one hand, and protective mechanisms on the other hand. And the personality structure represents individual combination of various traits of character and protective mechanisms. Freud was the first who distinguished between three components of personality: the id, ego, and superego which are created during different stages of our lives. The id is responsible for unconscious drives and motives and it mostly coincides with instincts in human personality. It incorporates two basic instincts –one of which motivates a human being desire for love, life, biological reproduction, and the other one has death as a basic goal which is nevertheless is not fully recognized. The id is responsible for instincts and desires and their immediate satisfaction regardless of the consequences of such actions that is why it has to be balanced by superego. This part of personality incorporates moral principles and values of society developed through the history of civilization. In most cases it is understood in terms of conscience which can make ego feel guilty. Ego serves as a balancing structure between unrealistic demands of the id and overestimated requirements of ego(Oliver et all, 2008). Another important concept of personality was suggested by Freud`s most famous student- Carl Jung. According to the analytical theory, the personality is a set of the congenital and realized archetypes, and the structure of the personality is defined as an individual originality of a ratio of separate properties of archetypes, separate blocks of unconscious and conscious, and also the extraverted or introverted installations of the personality (John et al., 2008). The psychiatrist viewed personality development as a process and connected it with his personal theory of archetypes. His concept of Self was best understood in the sense of completeness of a person. According to psychologist, everyone has to pass certain stages to acquire real Self in the process of individuation. The search of Self is a long and painful process which requires experience and motivation from a person. According to Jung, the Self...embraces ego-consciousness, shadow, anima, and collective unconscious in indeterminable extension (Hogan & Smither, 2001). Supporters of the humanistic theory of personality in psychology, such as K. Rogers and A. Maslow, consider inborn tendencies to self-improvement to be the main source of development. Within the humanistic theory, the personality is the inner world of a human that "I" which appears as a result of self-development while the structure of personality is this individual ratio between "real I" and "ideal I", and also an individual level of development of needs for self-development (Engler, 2008). The basic need of the person according to humanistic psychology consists in self-actualization, i.e. aspiration to self-improvement and self-expression. A. Maslow considered that a mature, self-aware personality has to possess the following characteristics: perceive reality actively and without illusions and to be guided in it well; accept himself/herself and others exactly as they are; be direct in actions and spontaneous in thoughts and feelings expressions; be interested in the outside world as opposed to orientation only to the inner world; have sense of humor; have creative abilities; ignore conventions, but not demonstratively; care of personal wellbeing and wellbeing of others. It is also necessary to establish good relationships with people around and not to hide from life, estimate it impartially, from the objective point of view; to prefer new, non-standard ways in life; behave honestly in all situations; be ready to become unpopular, to undergo condemnation for nonconventional views; be able to take the responsibility; make a maximum of efforts for achievement of goals; be able to notice and overcome resistance of others if it is necessary (Schultz & Schultz, 2009). Cognitive theory of personality is close to humanistic, however it has a number of essential differences. The founder of this approach is an American psychologist J. Kelly. In his opinion, the only thing that the person wants to know in life is what happened to him and what will happen to him in the future. According to the cognitive theory, the personality is the system of organized personal constructs in which personal experience of the person is perceived and interpreted. Personality structure is regarded as individual hierarchy of constructs within this approach (Hogan & Smither, 2001). The main thesis of behavioral theory of the personality states: our personality is a product of learning. Within this approach, the personality is system of social skills and conditioned reflexes, on the one hand, and the system of internal factors: self-efficiency, the subjective importance, and availability on the other. According to the behavioral theory of the personality, the structure of the personality is an hierarchy of reflexes or social skills in which the leading role is played by internal blocks of self-efficiency, the subjective importance and availability (Engler, 2008). Another psychoanalyst, Blowby also thought that people become who they due to such factors as attachment in the early childhood which is biologically determined. Behaviorists thought that experience and upbringing create a person, and so that every child can become anyone he wants (Herrnestein, 1972). One of the most important Freud`s followers was Erik Erikson who managed to revise Freud`s theory of personality focusing his attention on social environment and applying it to psychological development. In his 8-stage theory of development he connected the progress with specific struggle between two categories on each level of human life. The conflict of these two opposite characteristics of personality serves as a driving force for progress. Erikson also regarded each stage as a potential cause of pathology: if one stage is not completed the person is prone to repeat it over and over. Despite the fact that his works were criticized later, the very concept and the approach to human development is still utilized as a source of inspiration for many psychologists and patients (Erikson`s Legacy, 2010). Thus, Erik Erikson divided human life into eight important stages: Trust vs. Mistrust (first 2 years) The main responsibility during this phase lies on baby`s caregivers. If the basic needs in contact, touch, attention are not satisfied or satisfied episodically, the baby may get stuck on this phase. Hope is the virtue that is developed in a human being if he receives enough care during this stage. Autonomy vs. Shame (18 months- 36 months). During the second stage infants have to develop a feeling of autonomy basing on certain skills such as caring about oneself and understanding the reactions of oneself. Inability to do this results in shame. Will serves as a virtue achieved during this period. Initiative vs. Guilt (3 years-5 years) During this stage children learn to imitate life of parents and experience the Oedipal complex which they need to resolve with the help of social, extended family identification. Industry vs. Inferiority (6 years-12 years) During this period children learn how to interact successfully with peers placing parents on the background. Such virtue as competence must be achieved on this stage. Identity vs. Role Confusion (12 years- 18 years) A teenager must rely on himself and create meaningful contact with peers. On this stage it is necessary to develop some stable moral principles and believes. Intimacy vs. Isolation (18 years -35 years) On this stage a person has to create successful relationships with partners and friends. Inability to do that or previous failure may cause permanent further isolation. Generativity vs. Stagnation (35 years-65 years) This is the most productive period because most people managed to build families and find stable jobs. Now they have to contribute to raising children and getting promoted in career. This is the period of achievements. Integrity vs. Despair (65 years- till death) During this part people have to become aware of the fact that they are responsible not only for the close relatives but for the society and humanity as whole and bring something useful to this world which would outlive them (Erikson, 1959). The concept of personality is so extensive and versatile that it has created a problem of its structuring. Most psychologists come to the common conclusion that it is necessary to perceive the personality as complete and coherent entity without dividing it on separate properties, functions, and traits. However, the scientific and fruitful studying of this subject is impossible without structuring the whole through its parts and the components. There is a set of theories which represent and explain personality development and shaping. The noticeable place among them is taken by the theories which describe personality from two different perspectives: biological and social. However, the aspects of free will, choice, determinism, attitude to learning process also influence perception of personality development. References Engler, B. (2008). Personality theories: an introduction. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Erikson, E. (1959). Identity and the Life Cycle. New York: International Universities Press. Herrnstein, R. (1972). Nature as Nurture: Behaviorism and the Instinct Doctrine. Behaviorism. Hogan, R. & Smither, R. (2001). Personality: theories and applications. Chicago: Westview Press John, O., Robins, R., & Perwin, L. (2008). Handbook of personality: theory and research. New York: The Guilford Press. Schultz, D. & Schultz, S. (2009). Theories of personality. Balmont: Cengage Learning Press Read More