The Implications of ADHD for the Child Academic Learning - Essay Example

What Are The Implications Of ADHD For The Child/Adolescents Academic Learning? Introduction Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a developmental disorder that causes hyperactivity and attention deficit, which affect executive functions (Brown, 2008; Castellanos et al., 2006). The disorder is quite common and has received considerable attention from researchers and physicians. A simple search for ADHD on the internet brings multiple contents about the disorder, which is a clear indication of the high level of attention. Apart from the mere internet search, scholarly works including peer reviewed journals and books on ADHD are not in any shortage. The growing attention on ADHD may be attributed to various factors. However, one of the underlying factors is the effects that the disorder has on people. Considering that it is a developmental disorder, ADHD has been associated with various negative effects on the growth, development, and functionality of individuals (Harpin, 2005; Taylor & Sonuga-Barke, 2008). In this regard, researchers and physicians have been interested in understanding the underlying causes and potential effects of ADHD in an attempt to develop effective measures for treating and managing it. While ADHD is prevalent among people of all ages, it is more prevalent among children and adolescents (Brown, 2013). According to Weiss, Hechtman and Weiss (2010), the intensity of ADHD tends to decrease in adulthood. This implies that children and adolescents are more predisposed to the more intense effects of ADHD, especially hyperactivity. ADHD has multiple implications on child/adolescents academic learning through its effect on paying attention, remembering things, and being organized in school (Wehmeier, Schacht & Barkley, 2010). Like any other disorder, ADHD has its unique symptoms. The main symptoms of ADHD include impulsivity, inattention and hyperactivity (Pelham et al., 2005; Antshel, 2010). While these symptoms might be difficult to detect in children because of the confusion with normal child behavior, they are usually identifiable because of their intensity and frequency. With regard to impulsivity, children and adolescents with ADHD tend to act without reflection such that it often causes annoyance to other people and may land the children in trouble (Taylor & Sonuga-Barke, 2008). For instance, they move and talk constantly and have problems relaxing or sitting in one place quietly. This may also manifest in the lack of self-control where the children tend to invade and interrupt without consideration for others. The manifestation of ADHD symptoms often ranges from mild to more intense, which may make it difficult to notice. In fact, quite a high number of people with the disorder often go unnoticed because they tend to occur concurrently with other comorbid conditions (Antshel et al., 2011). To ascertain the symptoms of ADHD, physicians often relate the manifested symptoms with their effects of the executive functioning of the individual. Often, if the identified symptoms are actually caused by ADHD, there will be a clear relationship with impairment in the executive functioning. For instance, in one study to examine the symptoms of ADHD among children, Wåhlstedt, Thorell and Bohlin (2008), found out that ADHD symptoms such as hyperactivity often predicted problems in socioemotional functioning. Therefore, the symptoms of ADHD can be identified based on their effects on the executive functioning of the individuals. ADHD and Impaired Functioning At the core of ADHD is its effect on executive functioning. Specifically, ADHD causes impaired functioning, which broadly refers to the situation where an individual is unable to perform executive functions normally or optimally (Brown, 2008). Executive functions are varied and include memory, emotional management, paying attention, organization, regulation of tasks, and cognitive processes. Evidence on the impairments caused by ADHD abound. For example, Martinussen et al (2005) conducted a study to establish whether ADHD had any impairment on working memory. The study established that ADHD actually caused large to moderate impairments in working memory among the children involved in the study. Specifically, the researchers found impairments in verbal storage, and spatial storage. This finding provides evidence showing that ADHD actually impairs executive functioning in individuals. Apart from impairment of cognitive functioning, ADHD also causes emotional, social, and behavioral impairments. Emotional problems often manifest in inability to regulate emotions effectively leading to behaviors such as aggression (Classi et al., 2012). Normal human beings often have the ability to self-regulate their emotions. For instance, when a child is abused or accidently hurt during play, he or she could manage the resulting emotional pain by avoiding aggression (Classi et al., 2012). However, ADHD could impair this ability resulting in violent or aggressive reactions. With regard to social functioning, ADHD patients often display problems within their family, school, and other social settings (Escobar et al., 2005). They tend to have problems interacting with their peers, which often adversely affects their social roles (Hoza, 2007). For example, children with ADHD often react to social interactions impulsively and disruptively, which adversely affects social interaction. Moreover, they often ignore social cues. All these affect their social functioning negatively. In the school setting, other children may avoid the company of an ADHD child because of their disruptiveness. Finally, children and adolescents with ADHD often show behavioral problems (Wehmeier, Schacht & Barkley, 2010). Because of their emotional dysfunction, impulsivity, hyperactivity, and inattention, children with ADHD may ignore instructions from parents and teachers, which may be perceived as being disobedient. They may also engage in other problematic behaviors such as attacking their peers, taking away toys from other children, and destroy things (Classi et al., 2012). Apart from the above symptoms, another common symptom of ADHD that is quite controversial is sleep disturbance. DSM-II and III included sleep disturbance as one of the symptons of the disorder. However, this has since been removed in the new editions of DSM because sleep disturbance has been viewed as a nonspecific symptom (Lewin & Alfano, 2008). However, sleep disturbance is quite prevalent among ADHD children with approximately 50 percent of such children experiencing this symptom (Lewin & Alfano, 2008). With such a high prevalence, sleep disturbance should not be ignored as a symptom of ADHD, which actually affects normal functioning of children and adolescents. Implication of ADHD on Child/Adolescents Academic Learning The impairments caused by ADHD often affect different areas of a child and or adolescent. The most obvious effects are on the academic performance. It is important to note that schooling is a primary activity for children and adolescents because most of them are in school at these ages. Therefore, much focus has been placed on the effects of ADHD on the academic performance of children and adolescents (see Birchwood & Daley, 2012; Biederman et al., 2004; Ek et al., 2010; Elia et al., 1993; Trout et al., 2007). A common theme that emerges is that ADHD actually affects the academic performance of children and adolescents adversely (Birchwood & Daley, 2012; Biederman et al., 2004; Ek et al., 2010; Elia et al., 1993; Trout et al., 2007). Apparently, children and adolescents with ADHD often perform poorly in academic compared to those without the condition. However, to understand the specific effects of ADHD on academic learning, it is necessary to break down the implications of the condition on specific areas in learning. Learning is a complex process that involves various phases and elements. Academic performance in terms of examination results is only a part of the entire process of learning. Therefore, this section will focus on five specific areas of learning to understand the effects of ADHD. These include paying attention, completing school tasks, remembering, careless mistakes, and disorganization (Ek et al., 2010). Implication of ADHD on Paying Attention in Academic Work One of the main symptoms of ADHD is inattention (see Pelham et al., 2005; Antshel, 2010). Inattention is an impairment of the ability of an individual to be attentive. Paying attention is crucial in learning. During learning, students are expected to pay attention to their teachers to understand the concepts being taught. Without paying attention, it is difficult for a student to get what the teacher is teaching (Reid, Lienemann & Hagaman, 2013). This can have far-reaching implications in terms of academic performance. ADHD may inhibit the ability of a child to pay attention in class or when learning. For example, a child with ADHD may not be able to remain attentive in class and would start disrupting other students in the process. Considering the normal nature of learning where the teacher delivers the learning contents to the students, such a student may not be able to gain the contents being delivered by the teacher effectively because his or her mind will be focused elsewhere (Biederman et al., 2004) In one study conducted in eastern Pennsylvania, 19 students from Grades 1 to 5 were selected to participate in a study to determine the effectiveness of a class wide peer tutoring on academic performance. Although the study focused on the effect of the peer tutoring, it revealed important insights regarding the effects of ADHD on student inattention. The researchers recorded the students’ active on-task and off-task behavior prior to and after the peer tutoring. Apparently, there was a significant increase in active on-task behavior after the peer tutoring (DuPaul et al., 1998). Prior to the peer tutoring, the active on-task student behavior, which represents attentiveness, was very low averaging less than 50 percent. This shows that ADHD actually affects child attentiveness during learning. Off-task behavior during learning represents inattentiveness. It includes any behavior that is not related to the learning process. For instance, in a group activity, off-task behavior may include snatching pens from other students such that it disrupts the group activity. This is a common behavior among children and adolescents with ADHD (DuPaul et al., 1998). Children and adolescents with the disorder may be unable to sustain attention to learning activities. This should not be taken to mean that they are disobedient or poorly behaved (Loe & Feldman, 2007). It is in their nature because of ADHD, which disrupts their executive function of being attentive. Such children are likely to be distracted easily by external factors during learning. In fact, some scholars have taken note of this problem and have recommended appropriate solutions to address it. According to Loe and Feldman (2007), one of the effective strategies to enhance the attentiveness of students with ADHD in learning is reducing distractions in the learning environment. This suggestion supports the fact that ADHD affects the attentiveness of children and adolescents in learning. If inattentiveness was not a problem, such a suggestion would not be necessary. Implication of ADHD on Completing School Tasks and Assignments Assignments are a central part of learning. Apart from the classroom learning, students are often given assignments in various forms including homework to complete on their free time. Such assignments and homework are meant to boost the students’ understanding of the concepts taught in class. Often, these assignments account for a percentage of the final grades of the student. Therefore, taking assignments seriously should be a priority for any student who wishes to excel academically. However, ADHD can hinder the ability of a learner to complete assignments and other school tasks as required. This is often based on various underlying factors such as academic under-achievement and various impairments (Power et al., 2006). To understand how ADHD affects a student’s ability to complete assignments and other school tasks, we will use examples and then support this using evidence from empirical studies. Consider a Grade 6 child named Peter. Peter was diagnosed with ADHD 18 months ago. Because of the disorder, Peter displays symptoms such as hyperactivity, impulsivity, and carelessness. At home, Peter often displaces things such as leaving the TV remote on the balcony. As a Grade 6 pupil, Peter often comes home with homework. However, it is only after his mother has enquired about it that Peter remembers he had some homework. Apart from this, the mother often has to be present to ensure that Peter completes his homework. Without the mother’s presence, Peter would leave the homework on the table and engage in other activities such as playing with the neighbors kids outside. Apart from forgetting about the homework, Peter cannot concentrate on completing it without his mother being there. This example provides a typical idea of how ADHD can interfere with a child’s ability to complete school assignment effectively (Power et al., 2006). More evidence for the effect of ADHD on completion of school tasks is available from research studies. In a study to explore homework problem patterns among ADHD students from grade 3 to 6, Power et al., (2006), used a survey to gather data from parents of the children regarding their homework problems. The survey focused on various elements such as failing to bring the homework assignments home, failing to do the homework unless supervised, and forgetting to submit the assignment to class. From the survey, the researchers established that students with ADHD portrayed two noticeable characteristics. First, they avoided completing the homework assignments in various ways such as denying that they have homework. Second, they failed to adhere to the requirements of the assignments. These findings provide a strong suggestion that ADHD actually affects a student’s ability to complete and adhere to school work and assignments Klingberg, Forssberg & Westerberg, 2002). Implication of ADHD on Remembering Things The effect of ADHD on cognitive functioning is already established. Cognitive functioning involves all functions of brain including memory. In fact, one of the main areas of cognitive functioning that are focused on with regard to the effect of ADHD is memory. Apparently, ADHD inhibits a person’s ability to remember things. This is particularly associated with the impairment of working memory. According to Klingberg, Forssberg and Westerberg (2002), the working memory is affected by ADHD in that a person’s ability to retain information within a relatively short period is reduced or inhibited. This implies that remembering things is a problem for people with the disorder. Considering the learning context, ADHD can also inhibit the ability of children and adolescents to remember things such as instructions, assignments, and academic content. Learning is heavily dependent on memory. Students need to remember concepts and things to be successful, for example, teachers often issue assignment instructions, which students should not forget if they are to succeed in their academics. Likewise, examinations require students to remember concepts that they have already learnt. Therefore, if the ability to remember is negatively affected, chances of academic failure are high. Evidence for the effect of ADHD on student memory can be found in several empirical studies. In a study to examine the relationship among working memory, academic performance, and ADHD, Gropper and Tannock (2009) established a strong correlation between the three variables. The study focused on 46 university students, 16 of whom had ADHD. The students working memories were tested based on auditory-verbal and spatial working memories. Compared to the control group, the students with ADHD had impairments in their working memories. This was particularly so with the auditory-verbal working memory. This working memory impairment affected their academic performance. These findings provide strong evidence to suggest that ADHD could affect the academic learning of children and adolescents by impairing their abilities to remember things. More evidence for the impairment of working memory among ADHD children is provided in another study that investigated working memory deficits among 23 boys, 11 of whom had ADHD. The researchers focused on phonological and visuospatial working memories. They established working memory deficits among the boys with ADHD while those without did not have such deficits (Rapport et al., 2008). With the strong pieces of evidence from various research studies showing that ADHD causes working memory impairments, it should be no surprise that children and adolescents with the disorder may have more problems remembering things in school than their peers who do not have the disorder. This implies that ADHD children and adolescents may incur more problems in their learning because of this impairment. However, it should be noted that not all cases of ADHD causes memory impairment (Gropper & Tannock, 2009. Some children with the disorder may not have such impairments. Moreover, having problems remembering things does not necessarily translate to poor academic performance. Implication of ADHD on Causing Careless Mistakes That Affect Academic Learning Carelessness is a common symptom of ADHD (Glass & Wegar, 2000). People with ADHD may show some careless behavior, which often results in careless mistakes. A careless mistake is a mistake that can be attributed to nothing else other than just being thoughtless or inattentive in what one is doing. By now, it must be apparent that children with ADHD often display behavior problems that are associated with being inattentive or thoughtless about their activities. For instance, being unable to be organized could cause some careless mistakes. With regard to academic learning, such careless mistakes can also be common and would affect their academic performance and outcomes (Brown, 2008). One of the common careless mistakes that may affect the academic learning of children ADHD is failing to take learning seriousness. In one study, Glutting, Youngstrom and Watkins (2005) investigated college students with ADHD on various factors including manifestation on careless mistakes in school work including in examinations, homework, losing school related to school work. The researchers found evidence that such careless mistakes were common among the college students with the disorder. Such careless mistakes, whether small or big, can affect the academic learning of the student. For example, careless mistakes in doing school assignments could result in poor marks, which would then translate to poor grades in school. In an examination, careless mistakes could determine whether a student passes or fails. Failure to understand the examination questions and requirements because of skimming through could be a serious mistake that would cause the student to fail to answer the exam questions appropriately. The American Psychiatric Association recognizes that careless mistakes is one of the common symptoms of ADHD related to inattention (Sparks, Javorsky & Philips, 2005).For the APA to have recognized this as a major symptom of the disorder, it must have had adequate grounds for basing the conclusion. Therefore, careless mistakes cannot be ruled out among children and adolescents in school. Considering that there is a wide load of evidence showing that learners with ADHD often underperform academically, it should not be difficult to link this underperformance partly to the careless mistakes that these students make in school work (Brown, 2013). Learning requires a seriousness, thoughtfulness, attention, and reflection (Reid, Lienemann & Hagaman, 2013). The process of learning is not simply the transfer of already packaged knowledge from the teacher to the student. Rather, learning entails the use of various skills in receiving, deciphering, manipulating, storing, and applying knowledge from the teacher, reading, or experience. All these cannot happen when careless mistakes are rampant. ADHD children with rampant careless mistakes cannot perform this takes effectively. Therefore, their learning process and learning outcomes are likely to be adversely affected. Implication of ADHD on Being Organized In Academic Work Organization is one of the executive functions likely to be affected by ADHD. Organization is based on the ability of an individual to apply self-management capabilities in organization various aspects of his or her life. For example, self-management entails organizing one’s daily schedule to ensure that they are able to complete the tasks that are supposed to be completed on a particular day. Within the learning context, ADHD learners require self-management interventions because their ability to self-manage is often impaired. However, self-management is a vital skill in learning. Specifically, a student’s ability to self-manage enables him or her to be in charge of his learning by being well organized and also reduces the burden on the teachers to intervene (Gureasko-Moore, Dupaul & White, 2006). While self-management is important for learners, learners with ADHD may not be able to organize their academic work properly. Students with ADHD often display poor behavior organization (Baum, Olenchak & Owen, 1998). This implies that children and adolescents with the disorder may lack self-control, which is necessary to manage behavior patterns. Impulsivity and hyperactivity associated with ADHD are typical examples of this lack of organized behavior patterns. Learning is also dependent on proper organization (Reid, Lienemann & Hagaman, 2013). Learners need to be well organized in school in terms of knowing when to attend class, which class to attend, and where to keep and find relevant material. For example, learners need to organize their notes well because of revising. However, ADHD learners may not be able to achieve this because of their conditions. This is often linked to various aspects (Goldstein and Ellison, 2002). The impairment of working memory could be a major deterrent to proper organization of academic work by learners with ADHD (Rapport et al., 2008). For example, after being giving an assignment to do and submit at a particular date, a student with ADHD may forget about the assignment completely. Therefore, in organizing their work, they could easily leave out the assignment. In such a case, the student could complete all other tasks but the assignment. Such disorganization would have adverse implications on the academic outcomes of the student. Without submitting the assignment, the student would not get marks for the assignment, which would affect his or her final grades (Goldstein and Ellison, 2002). Moreover, the hyperactivity, inattention, and impulsivity of children with ADHD could cause carelessness (Glass & Wegar, 2000). Such carelessness could lead to disorganization of school work. For example, a student with ADHD could leave his books anywhere including on the floor at home where they could be damaged or misplaced. This means that the student may have difficulties tracing of finding the books later when necessary. When combined with memory disruptions, the level of disorganization could be higher (Eku et.al, 2011). Implication of ADHD on Overall Academic Performance The overall academic performance of children and adolescents is also adversely affected by ADHD. Apparently, ADHD often results in executive function deficits, which then affect the overall academic performance of the children and adolescents. With executive function deficits, the children and adolescents are not able to perform at the same level academically as their peers without the condition because of the other factors discussed above. To illustrate this, Biederman et al., (2004) conducted a study to examine the implications of ADHD and executive function deficits on the academic performance of a sample of children and adolescents aged between 6 and 17 years old. The participants were subjected to academic tests including IQ tests to determine their overall academic performance. From the findings, it emerged that the participants with ADHD that caused executive function deficits had poor performance than those who had no ADHD or had ADHD without executive function deficits. With regard to repeating a grade, the study established that children with ADHD and executive function deficit had a higher probability of repeating that those with ADHD without executive function deficits. The implication of this finding is that ADHD disrupts executive functions, which then affects the overall academic performance of the children negatively. In yet another empirical study, Birchwood and Daley (2012) found a strong correlation between ADHD and poor academic performance among adolescents aged 15 and 16 years old. The study was conducted in the UK and focused on testing the academic performance and cognitive ability of the participants. To measure the overall academic performance, the researchers considered the GCSE results of the participants. The academic underperformance of the participants with ADHD was linked to the poor cognitive performance and motivation levels of the individuals. With such real-life evidence, there is great support for the association of ADHD with poor overall academic performance. Children and adolescents with ADHD often achieve lower academic grades and outcomes because of the effects of the disorder on their executive functioning including cognitive performance. The poor overall academic performance associated with ADHD can be linked to all the other five effects discussed above. The overall academic performance of a child is based on various factors including their level of attention, remembering things, concentration in class, completion of school tasks, and organization. ADHD affects either of these areas, which in turn contributes to the poor overall academic performance (Reid, Lienemann & Hagaman, 2013). The effect on overall academic performance is based on the intensity of the ADHD. In the first study by Biederman et al., (2004), the students with only ADHD without executive function deficits had better academic performance than those with ADHD and executive function deficits. In the second study by Birchwood and Daley (2012), most of the students who participated in the study had not been diagnosed with ADHD. However, the researchers used symptoms to classify them. Apparently, students with symptoms of ADHD were more likely to have poor grades. This suggests that poor academic performance is not certain for children and adolescents with ADHD. Rather, ADHD only increases the chances of poor academic performance. For this to happen, the condition has to impair executive functioning, which is crucial in learning. For example, if ADHD affects the ability of an adolescent to pay attention in class, this will obviously affect their overall academic performance because they will not get what is taught in class. As a result of the overall poor academic performance, many ADHD children often end up in special schools (Hechtman et al., 2004). In this special education schools, the students are treated specially based on their conditions. The learning environment is quite different from the conventional one to accommodate the special needs and characteristics of this group. Conclusion From the discussion in the paper, it is evident that ADHD is a common disorder affecting quite a large number of children and adolescents. It is also evident that research on the disorder is wide and extensive. The research focuses on various areas including the prevalence, manifestation, effects, and possible treatments. From this extensive research, so much knowledge and understanding on the condition have emerged. More than any other time in the past, ADHD is more understood in the fields of psychology and education. For instance, many education systems are accommodating children with ADHD through special education programs that cater to their specific needs. However, the symptoms of ADHD are not straightforward, which makes its diagnoses difficult (Das et.al, 2012). Many children with ADHD go undiagnosed because their parents, guardians, and teachers often consider their behaviors as normal behavior problems (Hechtman et al., 2004). This often results in such children being included in conventional learning environments where they are in the same classes with children without the disorder. This breeds problems in the academic learning of the children with ADHD. From the study, several specific implications of ADHD on academic learning have been discussed in detail. Evidence from empirical studies has been provided to support the claims. Generally, it has been proved that ADHD has interferes with the academic learning of children and adolescents, which ultimately leads to poor academic performance. This places children and adolescents with the disorder at a disadvantage compared to their peers who do not suffer from the condition (Baum et.al, 1998). Therefore, it is important that more attention is paid towards identifying symptoms of ADHD among children at an early age such that the necessary interventions can be applied to ensure that their academic performance is not hampered. Luckily, there are various alternative interventions that can be applied including medication, psychological assistance, and provision of specialized education. References Antshel, K. M. (2010). ADHD, learning, and academic performance in phenylketonuria. Molecular genetics and Metabolism, 99, S52-S58. Antshel, K. M., Hargrave, T. M., Simonescu, M., Kaul, P., Hendricks, K., & Faraone, S. V. (2011). Advances in understanding and treating ADHD. BMC medicine, 9(1), 72. Baum, S. M., Olenchak, F. R., & Owen, S. V. (1998). Gifted students with attention deficits: Fact and/or fiction? Or, can we see the forest for the trees?.Gifted Child Quarterly, 42(2), 96-104. Biederman, J., Monuteaux, M. C., Doyle, A. E., Seidman, L. J., Wilens, T. E., Ferrero, F., ... & Faraone, S. V. (2004). Impact of executive function deficits and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) on academic outcomes in children. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 72(5), 757. Birchwood, J., & Daley, D. (2012). Brief report: The impact of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) symptoms on academic performance in an adolescent community sample. Journal of adolescence, 35(1), 225-231. Brown, T. E. (2008). ADD/ADHD and impaired executive function in clinical practice. Current psychiatry reports, 10(5), 407-411. Brown, T., E. (2013). A new understanding of ADHD in children and adults: Executive function impairments. New York: Routledge. Castellanos, F. X., Sonuga-Barke, E. J., Milham, M. P., & Tannock, R. (2006). Characterizing cognition in ADHD: beyond executive dysfunction. Trends in cognitive sciences, 10(3), 117-123. Classi, P., Milton, D., Ward, S., Sarsour, K., & Johnston, J. (2012). Social and emotional difficulties in children with ADHD and the impact on school attendance and healthcare utilization. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 6(33), 1-8. Das, D., Cherbuin, N., Butterworth, P., Anstey, K. J., & Easteal, S. (2012). A population-based study of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms and associated impairment in middle-aged adults. PloS one, 7(2), e31500. DuPaul, G. J., Ervin, R. A., Hook, C. L., & McGoey, K. E. (1998). Peer tutoring for children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Effects on classroom behavior and academic performance. Journal of applied behavior analysis, 31(4), 579-592. Ek, U., Westerlund, J., Holmberg, K., & Fernell, E. (2011). Academic performance of adolescents with ADHD and other behavioural and learning problems—a population‐based longitudinal study. Acta Paediatrica, 100(3), 402-406. Elia, J., Welsh, P. A., Gullotta, C. S., & Rapoport, J. L. (1993). Classroom academic performance: improvement with both methylphenidate and dextroamphetamine in ADHD boys. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34(5), 785-804. Escobar, R., Soutullo, C. A., Hervas, A., Gastaminza, X., Polavieja, P., & Gilaberte, I. (2005). Worse quality of life for children with newly diagnosed attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, compared with asthmatic and healthy children. Pediatrics, 116(3), e364-e369. Glass, C. S., & Wegar, K. (2000). Teacher perceptions of the incidence and management of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Education, 121(2), 412. Glutting, J. J., Youngstrom, E. A., & Watkins, M. W. (2005). ADHD and college students: exploratory and confirmatory factor structures with student and parent data. Psychological assessment, 17(1), 44. Goldstein, S., & Ellison, A., T. (2002). Clinician’s guide to adult ADHD: Assessment and intervention. California: Academic Press. Gropper, R. J., & Tannock, R. (2009). A pilot study of working memory and academic achievement in college students with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 12(6), 574-581. Gureasko-Moore, S., Dupaul, G. J., & White, G. P. (2006). The effects of self-management in general education classrooms on the organizational skills of adolescents with ADHD. Behavior modification, 30(2), 159-183. Harpin, V., A. (2005). The effect of ADHD on the life of an individual, their family, and community from preschool to adult life. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 90(1), i2-i7. Hechtman, L., Abikoff, H., Klein, R. G., Weiss, G., Respitz, C., Kouri, J., ... & Pollack, S. (2004). Academic achievement and emotional status of children with ADHD treated with long-term methylphenidate and multimodal psychosocial treatment. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 43(7), 812-819. Hoza, B. (2007). Peer functioning in children with ADHD. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 32(6), 655-663. Klingberg, T., Forssberg, H., & Westerberg, H. (2002). Training of working memory in children with ADHD. Journal of clinical and experimental neuropsychology, 24(6), 781-791. Lewin, D., S., & Alfano, C., A. (2008). Sleep and psychiatric disorders in children: A complex reciprocal relationship. In C. Marcus, J.L. Carroll, D. Donnelly & G.M. Loughlin, (Eds), Sleep in children: Developmental changes in sleep patterns, second edition (pp. 297-316). Boca Raton: CRC Press. Loe, I. M., & Feldman, H. M. (2007). Academic and educational outcomes of children with ADHD. Journal of pediatric psychology, 32(6), 643-654. Martinussen, R., Hayden, J., Hogg-Johnson, S., & Tannock, R. (2005). A meta-analysis of working memory impairments in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 44(4), 377-384. Pelham, W. E., Fabiano, G. A., & Massetti, G. M. (2005). Evidence-based assessment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34(3), 449-476. Power, T. J., Werba, B. E., Watkins, M. W., Angelucci, J. G., & Eiraldi, R. B. (2006). Patterns of parent-reported homework problems among ADHD-referred and non-referred children. School Psychology Quarterly, 21(1), 13. Rapport, M. D., Alderson, R. M., Kofler, M. J., Sarver, D. E., Bolden, J., & Sims, V. (2008). Working memory deficits in boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): the contribution of central executive and subsystem processes. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36(6), 825-837. Reid, R., Lienemann, T., O., & Hagaman, J., L. (2013). Strategy instruction for students with learning disabilities. Guilford Publications. Sparks, R. L., Javorsky, J., & Philips, L. (2005). Comparison of the performance of college students classified as ADHD, LD, and LD/ADHD in foreign language courses. Language Learning, 55(1), 151-177. Taylor, E.A., & Sonuga-Barke, E.J.S. (2008). Disorders of attention and activity. In M. Rutter, D. Bishop, D. Pine, S. Scott, J.S. Stevenson, E.A. Taylor, & A. Thapar, (Eds.), Rutter’s child and adolescent psychiatry (pp. 521–542). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. Trout, A. L., Lienemann, T. O., Reid, R., & Epstein, M. H. (2007). A review of non-medication interventions to improve the academic performance of children and youth with ADHD. Remedial and Special Education, 28(4), 207-226. Wåhlstedt, C., Thorell, L. B., & Bohlin, G. (2008). ADHD symptoms and executive function impairment: Early predictors of later behavioral problems. Developmental Neuropsychology, 33(2), 160-178. Wehmeier, P. M., Schacht, A., & Barkley, R. A. (2010). Social and emotional impairment in children and adolescents with ADHD and the impact on quality of life. Journal of Adolescent Health, 46(3), 209-217. Weiss, M., Hechtman, L., T., & Weiss, G. (2010). ADHD in adulthood: A guide to current theory, diagnosis, and treatment. Baltimore, Maryland: JHU Press. Read More