Differences between Individual Language Learners - Essay Example

SEMINAL AND CONTEMPORARY INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES THEORIES By This article is concerned with the differences between individual language learners. This essay discusses how the seminal theories are used to explain personal life events. Personality is the individual’s behaviour in relationships with others. Knowing this, I have chosen two theories, contemporary and seminal to apply to the life event. One of the seminal theories of individual differences is the psychodynamic theory of Sigmund Freud, which helps me explain my behaviour during crises and other stressful times. For example, failing of an exam, my reaction was frustration, and only later on how I rationally accepted this stressful life event, (BUSS, & HAWLEY, 2011). In a contemporary way of things, the frustration pulls one down and an individual can lose perspective very easily. It makes me as an individual not think of the situations ahead of me. In this case I end up wasting too much time on things like wondering what went wrong and not accepting I actually failed. Exam failing is brought by anxiety in an individual. Here the individual takes the situation challenging and feels inefficient for the task. This makes me as a person occupied with self-deprecatory thoughts. In a more realistic way I should be accepting the problem and looking for positive ways of not failing again. The differences in peoples reactions to incidents come with their past experiences and ethnic groups. Test-anxious behaviour, which leads to frustration is brought to mind when their intellectual and social capabilities are exceeded by demands from the test situation. Worry brought along by frustration always has a cost. Some individuals like myself instead of taking a positive first step to deal with the worry brought by failure, I pre-occupy myself making the situation challenging. In the exam, failing self –efficacy plays a big role. Self-efficacy is the strength of ones belief in ones own ability to accomplish goals. According to Bandura there are four factors affecting self-efficacy; 1. Experience The individuals’ experience determines self-efficacy. Success raises self-efficacy, while failure lowers it. 2. Modelling When we see individuals succeeding we do want to be like them, but if we happen to be surrounded by failures our self-efficacy. 3. Social Persuasion Social persuasion encourages or discourages us in accordance of how they view tasks. Discouragement decreases an individual’s self-efficacy than encouragement is at increasing it. 4. Physiological Factors While stressed individuals’ exhibit signs of aches or fatigue this alters one’s self-efficacy. It is ones belief in the physiological response that alters self-efficacy, rather than the physiological response itself, (CORSINI, & WEDDING, 2011). Based on my personal experience positive thinking and focus is the only alternative to solve the frustration. Rogers theory emphasizes the power of the human being to accomplish the unexpected through self-actualization whereas Freud views humans as irrational and driven by the unconscious. In explaining my life event, I would agree more with Rogers’ theory where he emphasizes on the need of unconditional positive thoughts and trusting self. In my life event of failing exams, for me to succeed I had to get rid of all the negative energy and get focused on the positives around me. This may include the people I communicate with and believing in myself to increase self-efficacy. Self-actualization is in the hierarchy of human needs. Maslow focused on deficiency orientation, which consists of what one does not have, with a growth orientation based on satisfaction with an individual’s identity and capabilities. Behaviourist approach views personality as a pattern of learning behaviours acquired through classical or operant conditioning and shaped by reinforcement. Personally failing exams makes me be hard on myself hence restraining from my leisure activities, (LOPEZ, 2011). For having failed in the past before I would concentrate more on the ways to improve my anxiousness before exams. The fear results in the live event, which is frustration. Seminal and contemporary individual differences theories can be controlled according to an individual’s power of inner strength of self-efficacy. Psychology studies human thought when it goes wrong as well as right which is rational and irrational thought. Rational is the pursuit of knowledge responsible for our achievements, (WEITEN, 2009). The problem comes when sceptical arguments require a different view. For instance, having believed that a particular problem is brought up by behaving in such a way, we will always be convinced that’s the outcome of such behaviour. In my life event of failing exams, which is believed to occur due to certain behaviour like fear and self-doubts, it might be very difficult convincing in that I failed due to some other reason like being unwell. This is because the seminal and contemporary theories have it in different beliefs. Therefore, for it depends on the believer. That is why the norms are in every societal setting to govern the individuals. All these concepts come with the psychology of observation where all knowledge comes through our senses. According to my past experiences, belief is an internal state which makes me the controller of my emotional state. Motivation comes along with reasoning and one always has a self-justifying act so it’s up to us to choose our beliefs as it affects our results. Functionalism is the other theory which can be justified to be seminal and contemporary theory category. It emphasizes that every human action is due to a certain action or result. There are different types of functionalism theory; (BARONE, HERSEN, & VAN HASSELT, 2012). Psycho-functionalism describes the entities and properties of the mind in our psychological theories that cannot be redefined in simple behavioural dispositions. Analytic functionalism concentrates on the meanings of theoretical perspectives. As we have seen, according to this theory self-consciousness is necessary to be aware of the external world. Functionalism explains the circumstances in which situations happen, which show that the situation is not intentional. However, the inputs and outputs of the system will have to permit individuals in different environments to be in the same intentional state. Realizer-functionalism defines whichever lower-level properties that satisfies the functional characterizations, it can be in mind but very intentionally done which violates the norms. Role functionalists identify pain with that higher-level relation for instance behaviourism. Functionalism’s characterization of mental states in terms of their roles in the in the society gives them the causal efficacy that common sense takes them to have. Permitting mental states to be multiply realized, functionalism offers an account of mental states that is compatible with materialism, without limiting the class of minds, (CUSHMAN, & KOVACIC, 2009). Personally, I can say that the functionalism theory can be referred as seminal and contemporary theories, for they both view the aspect of mind and self in a similar manner. The functionalism also views the society as a contributor to the individuals’ manner of behaviour. In my point of view I would like to point out that one should be conscious in mind as well as physically in order to make the right decisions, (BREMNER, & WACHS, 2010). In my experience, I pointed my weakness which was fear and self-doubt, knowing this helped me know exactly how to react before and after my exams. The most important aspect here was the behaviour in which I carried myself before the examination because that would consider my outer product of weather I would fail my examination. It also depends on an individual’s satisfaction and motivation; some are more motivated and satisfied than others. These individual differences differ in the way one tackles issues, (ROBERTS, 2012). If an individual understands self he or she will understand others, therefore making work easier around him and greater performance. In such understanding of self knows where to be, for instance, what type of friends and what routine to have in order to be in the expected norms and external output. APPENDIX Both of the theories seminal and contemporary individual differences do have positive and negative effects of both individuals’ as well as the society at large. When a person is affected in negative way he or she gets the negativity mostly from the society and that contributes to his final output. I as an individual failing exams, I might have been so anxious because of been with individuals who only talked of the exams been difficult. Personally, I believe that positive thoughts always bring positive outcome. According to Durkheim facts are social they enjoy an existence independent from the individual and work their influence upon him regardless of his efforts to resist, though governed by laws to the social level .Weberon, on the other hand, insisted that a portion on human behaviour had to be found in the pattern of meanings given to his environment. For example, an individuals’ own definition of a situation, contributes to explaining his behaviour. This means that an individual fate at times depends on the social facts. There are aspects that can’t be changed and this affects the individual’s actions. Social facts are the values, cultural norms, and social structures which hold on an individual and the society. It is believed that different institutions have different norms and way of handling their institutions. For example, when it comes to religion the Catholic Church is said to be more organized than the Protestants, (COLLYER, 2015). This is because the Catholic’s are guided by regular set of rules whereby Protestants have different ways of worship unlike Catholics where theirs is uniformity. In such a case it is hard to go against the norms because they are not flexibility. The same thing happens in our societies where the law guides us and expects us to behave in a certain way. Imagine a world where seminal and contemporary theories are not taken into concern. This means that individuals would behave in any manner they wished for there would be no reinforcement, either rewards or punishment. The theory helps put individuals in their best behaviour for everyone wants positive outcome. The positive psychology, views the scientific method to study and determine positive human development. Positive psychology has roots in the humanistic psychology, it focuses on; positive emotions, positive individual traits, and positive institutions. Positive emotions are concerned with being ones past, happiness in the present and hope for the future. Positive traits focus on an individual’s strength and virtues. Lastly, positive institutions focus on strengths to better a society. Personally, I can say that an individual might be affected as well as the society. If not taken seriously the damages can be repairable. Let’s talk of one failing an exam and the frustration getting suicidal. To avoid such cases the problem must be handled at hand with highly positive expectations as well as following the norms. Like we have seen in different religions, individuals do react differently in family matters as well, (SHREVE, & ANGELONE, 2010). It was seen that divorce and suicide were more in Protestants than with Catholics, this is because of the energy in the institution and how they approach their problems as well as the norms set. The reinforcement to this behaviour matters as well, as which is the final judgment. People need some moral guide through life as individuals we should think about a situation before making decisions, as individuals we should avoid unexpected negative outcome. We should reflect on the beliefs held to determine what principles and values should be taken. As humans we should examine the moral arguments in review and reflection. Thinking positively the only unqualifiedly good is a good deed. A will, which acts from duty is seen as a will, which overcomes negative forces in order to keep the moral achievement. Duty often constrains individuals and makes them act against their inclinations. But this doesn’t mean that we as individuals should act inappropriately, but we should try and set situations in our own positive direction. The problem with culture is the same with that of the individual. Structure in the society has to be viewed and taken seriously for what goes wrong in cultural settings does affect the society as well as individuals. In such an understanding every aspect should be taken morally hence positively to avoid the dysfunctions of society which is individualism. References BARONE, D. F., HERSEN, M., & VAN HASSELT, V. B. (2012). Advanced Personality. Dordrecht, Springer. BREMNER, J. G., & WACHS, T. D. (2010). Basic research. Chichester, West Sussex, U.K., Wiley-Blackwell. http://site.ebrary.com/id/10419219. BUSS, D. M., & HAWLEY, P. H. (2011). The evolution of personality and individual differences. New York, Oxford University Press. http://site.ebrary.com/id/10472242. COLLYER, F. (2015). The Palgrave handbook of social theory in health, illness, and medicine. http://www.palgraveconnect.com/doifinder/10.1057/9781137355621. CORSINI, R. J., & WEDDING, D. (2011). Current psychotherapies. Belmont, CA, Brooks/Cole CUSHMAN, D. P., & KOVACIC, B. (2009). Watershed research traditions in human communication theory. Albany, N.Y., State University of New York Press. LOPEZ, S. J. (2011). The Encyclopedia of Positive Psychology. New York, NY, John Wiley & Sons. http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:101:1-201412032675. ROBERTS, S. C. (2012). Applied evolutionary psychology. Oxford, Oxford University Press. SHREVE, G. M., & ANGELONE, E. (2010). Translation and cognition. Amsterdam, John Benjamins Pub. Co. WEITEN, W. (2009). Psychology applied to modern life: adjustment in the 21st century. Australia, Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Read More