Exploring Whether Technology Has Affected Children's Learning - Essay Example

THE EFFECT OF TECHNOLOGY ON CHILDREN’S LEARNING Introduction There is an ongoing debate on whether technology in the form of computers, television, mobile phones, video game consoles and other devices are beneficial or detrimental to children’s learning. Digital technologies facilitate increasingly higher speeds at which people access information, and how they ultimately convert it into knowledge. Supporters of the increasing use of technology believe that it helps children to learn more effectively by facilitating their reach to limitless, current sources on a global scale, as well as promoting their awareness of how they think and learn. On the other hand, many potential dangers have been identified by scholars opposing the use of computers and technology by children. Besides vision problems and musculo-skeletal diseases caused by bad posture, technology restricts children’s time for physical activities, play, and direct interactions with parents and peer which are essential for childhood learning experiences, for physical and mental health, for cognitive development and for emotional well-being. Thesis Statement: The purpose of this paper is to investigate the outcomes of the use of technology by children on their learning. Technology in the Learning Environment: Computer Use by Children The integration of technology into the instructional environment is a significant concern addressed by educators. Information technology has introduced access to vast, current information through the internet, to cognitive skills development through games and activities, and to numerous other useful learning programmes such as interactive learning. Technology enables interactive learning which enhances learning significantly through changes in the teaching and learning. In contemporary education, interactive learning through hypermedia replaces linear learning, construction and discovery replace instruction, learner-centred instruction takes the place of teacher-centred instruction, the teacher becomes a facilitator instead of transmitter, and the emphasis shifts to navigating information from a focus on absorbing material. Significantly, while learning through computer technology is an issue at all levels of education, “the use of technology by young children is particularly controversial” (Wright 2001: 37). The proponents of computer use advocate the use of computers from preschool years. From the age of three, preschool children are believed to benefit through learning about technology, how it is controlled by people, that technology is used in different forms, that it is controlled by rules, and that an individual is required to organize their thinking in different ways to use different computer programmes (Haugland 2000). With rapid technological development, there is now a new demographic group of students termed as the “net generation”. Being techno-literate, they often have computer-related abilities far advanced to their parents and teachers. Availability of technology in school is an important requirement for them, together with learning being fun and entertaining while at the same time providing customization, flexibility and immediacy, states Hay (2000). Buckingham (2007: 99) states that proponents of technology believe that it inherently “fosters a more flexible, open-ended, student-led style of learning” and its informal learning style and student-centred methodology help to achieve more effective learning outcomes. Computer Activities for Preschoolers: Developmental Achievements The 3- and 4-year-old children who undertake computer activities that reinforce educational objectives have greater developmental gains than those preschoolers who do not engage in these activities. Evidence from research indicates that “kindergarten and primary age children display improved motor skills, enhanced mathematical thinking, increased creativity, higher scores on tests of critical thinking and problem solving, and increased scores on standardized language assessments” (Haugland 2000: 14). A longitudinal research study on children in kindergarten and first grade examined the effect of technology in the home on reading and math achievement. The evidence indicates that the availability of and students’ access to home computers, adult guidance on the use of computers, and the use of technology influences their future academic achievement in school (Espinosa et al 2006). Additionally, when used appropriately, technology can increase children’s cognitive and social abilities. However, it should be used as a supportive measure to supplemnent children’s learning. Haugland (2000) reiterates that computers should not replace early childhood learning through highly valued activities such as art, dramatic play, reading books, and exploration with writing materials, blocks, sand and water. The importance of introducing computers at an early age is stressed by Lacina (2007). Three to four-year-old children can be introduced to technology that parents should evaluate for age-appropriateness. High quality online stories allow for interactivity and provide an interesting and challenging reading activity to young preschoolers. Buckingham (2007) reiterates that the more informal and interactive approach to learning is evident on their great reliance on visual material. Further, they have animation, oral narration or word pronunciation on demand (Block et al 2004). Similar to assessing print books for quality, parents and teachers should take into consideration vocabulary, syntax, level of interactivity between the child and the stories, and students’ background knowledge and experiences (Lacina 2008). Preschoolers who cannot read can comprehend stories by listening to an adult read. Good books motivate and engage children. Teaching reading comprehension through the internet is a different form of literacy that supports the development of writing skills through increased engagement with the meaning of words and sentences. Moreover, through choosing online stories and by taking ownership of their reading children’s powers of discernment and confidence levels are increased (McKenna et al 2003). The Digital Divide A new social problem termed as the digital divide has emerged in recent years, according to the prediction by government, scholars, and the media. This is a phenomenon of unequal access to personal computer technology; where there is a “divide separating families who have computers and access to the Internet at home from families who do not” (Attewell, Suazo-Garcia, & Battle 2003: 277). One of the foremost promoters of computing in the home and at school is Seymour Papert, a mathematician as well as author of several books related to digital technology and the digital divide. Since the time of working as the developer of the LOGO computer language for children, Papert expressed his perspective that computers release the creative impulses of children and enable children to become aware of how they think and learn. Papert promoted the drastic restructuring of the pedagogical approach to integrate computers into the regular classroom, and facilitating the pursuit of several types of schoolwork with technology. Social commentators with opposing views agree that the spread of computers in society has given rise to a serious new social problem. The supporters of computer technology believe that the social problem is the lack of access to technology by some children. On the other hand, the detractors consider the social problem to be the harm caused to young children by premature exposure to computing, thereby adversely affecting their natural cognitve and emotional development (Attewell et al 2003). Research conducted by Jackson et al (2006) reveals that home Internet use has no adverse effects on children’s social or psychological outcomes and has positive effects on their academic outcomes. However, the intermediate factors that play a part in the Internet’s positive outcomes need to be studied. Subsequently, interventions designed to optimize beneficial outcomes of Internet use for children may be developed and assessed. The research evidence clearly identifies the public policy implications which need to be implemented. Children on the other side of the digital divide are the ones who would benefit most from home Internet use. Therefore, visionary leaders should ensure that the Internet is available for all, since this technology is considered to be the most beneficial in leveling the playing field in education. On the other hand, Attewell et al (2003: 294) found from their research that the concept of digital divide does not to a great extent lead to the positive or negative effects expected. In “letter-word recognition, reading comprehension, and mathematical calculations, moderate home computer users performed better than nonusers”. However, these computer effects are not as significant as would be expected from the writings of advocates of technology for young children. Contrastingly, critics of young children’s computing stated that computing eliminated other educationally beneficial activities such as reading, sports or outdoor activities. For this contrasting viewpoint also, the researchers found little empirical evidence through their research. The Impact of Technology on Cognitive Skills Development Whether computers and the internet have any impacts on children’s cognitive skills and overall development is an important issue in the field of education and other areas of life (Bracken & Lombard 2004). Research studies have substantiated that children recall what they learn from a computer, particularly if they are rewarded. At the same time, it is necessary to determine the ways in which computers are affecting “skill learning, cognition and the skills necessary for reasoning, problem solving, reading and creativity” (CERI 2008: 7). However, it is difficult to generalize the evidence from research on the influence of digital media use on cognitive skills, since the research studies are always related to a particular context and based on a number of factors such as age, gender, socio-economic background, the amount of time devoted to computer activities, and preference for certain activities. The majority of research on the effect of technology on cognitive skills, examine the way digital technologies in the form of training or teaching, impact certain skills, competencies and behaviours. Though research evidence might not reveal how the use of technology affects learners in broad terms, it provides enhanced understanding of the processes taking place and facilitates the development of appropriate interventions and contexts for learning. Further, tests are conducted in controlled environments, hence some of the impacts observed are likely to occur in the everyday interaction of youth with educational software, computer games or the Internet (CERI 2008). Digital media has characteristics which provide opportunities for improving various cognitive skills. Over the years, the use of digital media in formal and informal settings has concerned training or impacts on memory skills, attention; planning, strategy use and other executve functions; besides language, thinking and visual-spatial skills. The various aspects that are covered by research in the area of cognitive development as a result of digital technology include “understanding how different digital materials are processed; what cognitive abilities they activate and affect; how mental models are built from digital aids; how to train certain cognitive skills in the context of academic learning (CERI 2008: 8); and the ways in which the use of computers and the Internet at home for playing games, searching for information, and communication impact cognitive skills. Most of the research addressing issues concerning technology and cognition has been qualitative in design. They address issues related to the methods by which technology enables reasoning, rather than how it has significant effects on cognitive processes and representations. Further, quantitative research methods help in studying interrelationships between personal/ cognitive and situational variables, and do not empirically isolate the effects of technology on cognition that would adversely impact the ecological validity of the research (Arnseth & Ludvigsen 2006). A research review conducted by Koeppl et al (2001) which included only empirical studies, concluded that their investigation on whether technology improves child development, reached an affirmative answer. This positive answer needs to take into account the fact that the research review focused only on the positive side of technology, thereby promoting the interests of some advocacy and interest groups. Atkinson et al (2001) also indicated that to ensure that technology impacts the child as planned and predicted, attention should be given to the way in which it will be used to support curricular goals and to the selection of hardware and software. Teachers’ efforts will be successful only if they are adequately trained to teach children the use of technology, and receive support from their schools and community. The above limitations should be kept in mind in examining conclusive evidence related to visual-spatial skills, the Flynn effect, memory skills, and to multitasking (CERI 2008). Zimmerman & Christakis (2005) tested the effects of television viewing before 3 years and between 3 to 5 years on various measures of cognitive outcomes at ages 6 to 7 years. The researchers used the control factors of parental cognitive stimulation throughout early childhood, maternal education and IQ. They found that television viewing before age 3 years had a moderately adverse effect on the subsequent cognitive development of children, hence children below 3 years of age should not be permitted to watch television. There is no conclusive evidence on the effectiveness of digital technology on school performance. This may be due to the fact that the research methods used have not asked the right questions, and were inherently weak or inappropriate in research design. Cox & Marshall (2007) have underlined the requirement for studies robust in methodology, based on large and varied samples, in longitudinal studies conducted over several years, designed to give conclusive answers to questions such as: the impact of specific technology uses on pupils, whether the methodology of implementing technology has a great or small impact on pupils’ learning, whether the impact affects the surface or deep structure of students’ thinking and learning. Therefore, it is more important to investigate how to use technology to improve the quality and the results of education, rather than to determine whether technology is worth using or not. Visual-Spatial Skills The study of visual-spatial skills development forms a major area of cognitive skills research pertaining to the impact of technology. Several computer applications have design features which employ visual processing rather than verbal. Visual-spatial skills are related to “two- and three-dimensional images, spatial visualization, and the skills needed to read images, the ability to recognize the information which images contain, as well as the ability to interpret images” (CERI 2008:8). These skills generally improve with repeated practice as through the regular use of multimedia and computer games. With the increasingly enhanced graphic design and realism of video games giving rise to new dimensions of spatial, iconic and dynamic features, there is the provision of a new environment for children to develop a set of skills related to “visual attention, orientation and spatial representation” (CERI 2008: 9). Increasing spatial abilities through computer games by regular practise and drill has been consistently advocated by various research studies (CERI 2008). However, there is no conclusive evidence regarding the transferability of improved visual-spatial skills to new contexts or to a broader range of spatial abilities. Memory Skills Violent content of media such as television and cinema are increasingly receiving public attention. In association with research on the influence of violent media content on children, another essential area is the impact of digital media use on memory skills of young people. Although some structural features of multimedia facilitate retention, it is believed that “strong emotional experiences during interaction with digital media might hinder memory skills and the long-term effects of learning” (CERI 2008: 9). The above hypothesis is based on the assumption that emotional occurrences impact the way things are perceived and remembered. For example, elements of incidents cannot be recalled in the cases of victims of violence. It is believed that to a significant extent, computer games and movies today are created to provoke strong emotional responses. Engaging in computer games after learning activities would decrease the learning effects from school or home work. Hauge & Gentile (2003) report that video game addiction is a problem among adolescents, and is more among males. There is a relationship between the addiction and the emergence of adjustment problems, evident in adverse impacts on school performance, as well as aggressive attitudes and behaviours. Impact of Video Games and Television on Children’s Learning Good computer and video games are learning machines, which young people enjoy mastering though they are long and challenging. Through repeated play using various types of cognitive skills, well-designed games are “models for the production of expertise” (Gee 2003: 3). Motivation is the most significant factor that drives learning, and this is true for good video games which create and sustain motivation in learners. Motivation may be defined as a learner’s commitment to engage in a new area of learning. In computer and video games players engage in action from a distance, similar to remote operation of a robot, but in a highly fine-grained fashion. According to Clark (2003), cognitive research suggests that such minute action played from a distance actually causes humans to feel as if their bodies and minds have extended into a new space, thereby achieving a high level of motivation. Though books and movies have other virtues, they do not create this motivation in the player to invest in the character and the game at a deep level. In some ways all learning involve playing a character. ‘Games reveal how players invest in new identities or roles, which can become powerful motivators for new and deep learning in classrooms and workplaces” (Gee 2003: 3). Learning takes place subsequent to re-creating oneself in the new character. In large multi-player games, the players often collaborate in teams, each using a different though overlapping set of skills. They mutually share knowledge, skills, and values both within the game and on various Internet sites. In the process they facilitate the distribution of knowledge within the community or contemporary high-tech, multi-functional, team-centred workplace (Wenger et al 2002). Games are thus considered to be better sites for preparing workers for modern workplaces than traditional schools, since they facilitate learning through achieving re-creation of themselves in a new world. On the other hand, the positive effects of engaging in television viewing, music videos and video games are nullified when excessive time is spent on these activities. Moreover, children’s cognitive development is affected adversely and wrong learning patterns are established if the television programmes, music videos or video games are full of violence or gender stereotypes. Evra (2004: 84) reiterates that “there is a strong association between viewing violence and behaving aggressively”. Therefore, parental guidance in the selection of appropriate programmes and software for children’s requirements is crucial to achieve optimal recreational and learning outcomes. Multitasking and its Effects Media has entered the lives of young people extensively, leading to media multitasking. The computer and the internet are increasingly being preferred for accessing a variety of media including television and music which receive attention from the student even while she/ he is engaged in academic work. However, research studies focusing specifically on the effects of multimedia tasking have not yet been undertaken. Evidence from neurological research conducted by Just et al (2001) state that brain capacity is finite, and attention to one task lessens when another task is introduced. However, multitasking done by young people in front of a computer screen is different in that they do not attempt to process non-complementary messages at the same time. They switch from one activity to another and back again in a continuous process of changing their attention to different media. The results of neurological research has identified the portion of the brain responsible for this kind of activity-switching (Wallis 2006). However, information regarding the impact of constant switching between media even when all are based on computer technology is not available. It has been predicted that multitasking is a phenomenon that will continue to increase and will become mainstream. The capacity of the brain is limited, and cannot process information simultaneously from different sources needing attention in a continous flow from one to the other and back again. Therefore it is clearly possible that multitasking hampers learning in any one area, and shifting attention spans are detrimental to learning from academic tasks which are often part of the multi-tasking process. The Flynn Effect “The Flynn effect is the rise of average Intelligence Quotient (IQ) test scores” (CERI 2008: 9), a phenomenon that is increasingly seen in most industrialized countries, although at differing rates. The effect is named after James R. Flynn who discovered it and promoted awareness of its implications. The Flynn (2007) effect relates to the exposure to the extensive imagery in media contributing to selective increases in nonverbal intelligence scores during the past century. A study comparing average scores on the Raven Progressive Matrices test (nonverbal) among British adults of comparable ages, revealed marked increases in IQ levels for all age groups tested. It is believed that environmental changes arising from modernization and subsequently more intellectually demanding work, increased use of technology, and smaller families have resulted in people dealing with abstract concepts “such as hypothesis and categories” (CERI 2008: 10) more easily than a century ago. Most portions of IQ tests deal with these abilities. Other researchers such as Newcombe & Huttenlocher (2000) have found that the Flynn effect is cause by increased performance on nonverbal items such as spatial visualization. Hence the effect is possibly due to the greater use of audiovisual media by children. A similar longterm effect is likely to occur from children’s exposure to computer screens, particularly to video games, both individually as well as generationally. Thus, positive learning outcomes from enhanced visual-spatial skills through children’s increased use of video games indicates improved learning outcomes from technology. The Adverse Effects of Heavy Use of Computing on Children There can be several negative outcomes on children caused by long hours at the computer. Inadequate sleep at night can lead to drowsyness and inattentiveness in the daytime, which in turn can adversely affect children’s studies, play, socializing and other essential activities. Further, due to maintaining poor posture, the chances of developing various musculoskeletal disorders particularly related to the neck, shoulders and spinal region increase. Such conditions can further lead to long-term treatment periods, limit daily activities, and hamper the normal growth of the child. Moreover, long hours at the computer frequently affects the vision, causing several types of eye defects in the young person. From blurring of the vision, watering of the eyes, development of myopia, weakness of the eyes, and to other severe conditions, the eyes can get seriously affected. Additionally, the child’s normal potential for physical growth can be realized only through playing energetic outdoor games, and engaging in rigorous sports activities. By not fulfilling these requirements, growth of the body is negatively affected. Rudas et al (2009: 223) add that “playing and acting in playful environment is the basic key for children’s learning” and social relationships enhance children’s cognitive skills. Similarly, playing activities and interactions in the technological environment also have a positive influence on children’s learning skills. The effects of technology on socialization are found to be varied. Social interactions on a direct or face-to-face basis “provides much needed stimulation the growing mind and intellect” (Plowman et al 2010: 24). This gets minimized due to children spending all their free time at the computer. This affects the child’s development of social skills and enthusiasm for sustaining vital friendships. The learning of other forms of socialization are facilitated through the virtual world. However, the latter may be more harmful due to lack of supervision by adults, with the consequent absence of the benefits of counseling. These outcomes can further cause introvertedness, and a lack of emotional bonding with others. By avoiding interactions with family, the child loses the wealth of knowledge and information he could gain and share, as well as socialization and the learning of social skills. Heavy use of computing is also associated with greater obesity among young children, even after ensuring time for physical activities. This phenomenon is not widespread, occurring only among the 2% of young children using home computers for around 8 hours per week. However, obesity is an increasing health risk among children, and this finding should be taken into consideration. However, already heavy children may use the computer as a leisure activity (Attewell et al 2003). Future research should use longitudinal data to determine which occurs first: obesity or heavy computer use. Conclusion This paper has highlighted the influence of technology on children’s learning. Positive research results reinforce the utility value of home computing in the case of a great majority of young children using home computers for less than eight hours per week. This validates the views of the proponents of technology for improved learning outcomes. The concept of digital divide considers children without access to computers to be deprived of a significant support to their learning environment, and as being at a disadvantage academically, as compared to children with computer access. Developmental achievements are found to be optimized in preschoolers when limited hours of computer activity is supplemented with physical play activities and social interactions. On the other hand, spending several hours on a home computer is related to numerous adverse effects including less sports and outdoor play, and obesity among young children. This confirms the beliefs of critics of computing and of excessive use of technology by children. Similarly multi-tasking that is increasingly prevalent among students, has adverse learning outcomes due to learning being hampered by several inputs from various sources at the same time. Enhanced cognitive results have been analysed from home computing by children and adolescents. The Flynn effect of consistent increase in IQ levels over the last century, is directly correlated with increased performance in visual-spatial skills and memory retention as required in playing video games. Further, enhanced motivation inherent in video and computer games results in higher learning outcomes, as evident from the positive effects from children’s longterm exposure to computer screens, specifically video games. Contrastingly, academic learning followed by long hours of using digital technology producing strong emotional responses in children, causes the level of learning from academic work to decrease. Thus, the effects of technology on cognitive skills development specifically in relation to visual-spatial skills and nonverbal forms of intelligence have been reviewed, and generally a positive correlation has been found. Contrastingly, the research evidence underlines the negative effect on young people of excessive time spent on playing video games depicting violence or gender stereotypes. Similar detrimental effects were found from violent and stereotypical content of media such as television and cinema. The impact of technology on children’s creativity, reflective thinking, critical analysis, and general meta-cognitive skills have not been studied. Future research should focus on large longitudinal studies over lengthy periods of time with children, to determine the right methodological approach and ideal durations of using various forms of technology. The goals of the research would be: to use playful digital environments to optimize learning, maximize academic achievement, help socialization, maintain good health and achieve enhanced behaviour patterns through the different uses of technology. Therefore, it is concluded that technology is an increasingly vital tool for enhanced learning outcomes. However, the use of computers, Internet, video games, television, and other technological innovations by children should be judiciously balanced with physical activities such as sports, games, other forms of outdoor play, reading, direct social interactions, and responsible participation in work at home and school. A combination of all these activities would help in achieving optimal learning outcomes. References Arnseth, H.C. & Ludvigsen, S.R. (2006). Approaching institutional context: Systemic versus dialogic research in CSCL. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 1: pp.167-185. Atkinson, N.L., Silsby, J., Gold, R.S., Koeppl, P.T., Choksi, A.N. & Gutierrez, L.S. (2001). Technology and child development, Part I: A ten-year review of reviews. The Public Health Informatics Research Laboratory. Decatur, GA: The Center for Child Well-Being. Retrieved on 11th December, 2010 from: http://www.childwellbeing.org/c-pdfs/MD_TechPapersI.pdf Attewell, P., Suazo-Garcia, B. & Battle, J. (2003). Computers and young children: Social benefit or social problem? Social Forces, 82 (1): pp.277-296. Block, C.C., Gambrell, L.B. & Pressley, M. (Eds.). (2004). Improving comprehension instruction: Rethinking research, theory, and classroom practice. London: Jossey- Bass. Bracken, C.C. & Lombard, M. (2004). Social presence and children: Praise, intrinsic motivation, and learning with computers. Journal of Communication, 54: pp.22-37. Buckingham, D. (2007). Beyond technology: Children’s learning in the age of digital culture. The United Kingdom: Wiley-Blackwell. CERI (Centre for Educational Research and Innovation). (2008). New Millennium Learners: Initial findings on the effects of digital technologies on school-age learners. Centre for Educational Research and Innovation. Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. Retrieved on 11th December, 2010 from: http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/39/51/40554230.pdf Clark, A. (2003). Natural-born cyborgs: Why minds and technologies are made to merge. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. Cox, M.J. & Marshall, G. (2007). Effects of ICT: Do we know what we should know? Education and Information Technology, 12: pp.59-70. Espinosa, L.M., Laffey, J.M., Whittaker, T., & Sheng, Y. (2006). Technology in the home and the achievement of young children: Findings from the early childhood longitudinal study. Early Education Development, 17 (3): pp.421-441. Evra, J.P. (2004). Television and child development. Edition 3. London: Routledge. Flynn, J.R. (2007). What is intelligence?: Beyond the Flynn effect. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Gee, J.P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. ACM Computers in Entertainment, 1 (1): pp.1-4. Hauge, M.R. & Gentile, D.A. (2003). Video game addiction among adolescents: Associations with academic performance and aggression. National Institute of Media and the Family. Retrieved on 11th December, 2010 from: http://www.psychology.iastate.edu/~dgentile/SRCD%20Video%20Game%20Addiction.pdf Haugland, S.W. (2000). What role should technology play in young children’s learning? Part II: Early childhood classrooms in the 21st century: Using computers to maximize learning. Young Children, 55 (1): pp.12-18. Hay, L.E. (2000). Educating the net generation. School Administrator, 57 (4): pp.6-8. Jackson, L.A., Von Eye, A. & Biocca, F. (2006). Children and Internet use: Social, psychological and academic consequences for low-income children. APA Online, Psychological Science Agenda. Retrieved on 11th December, 2010 from: http://www.mindlab.org/images/d/DOC797.pdf Just, M.A., Carpenter, P.A., Keller, T.A., Emery, L., Zajac, H. & Thulborn, K.R. (2001). Interdependence of nonoverlapping cortical systems in dual cognitive tasks. Neuroimage, 14 (2): pp.417-426. Lacina, J. (2008). Technologically based teacher resources for designing comprehension lessons. In C.C. Block & S.R. Parris (Eds.). Comprehension instruction. 2nd Edition. New York: Guilford Press: pp.362-380. Lacina, J. (2007). Computers and young children. Childhood Education, 84 (2): pp.113- 115 McKenna, M.C., Labbo, L.D. & Reinking, D. (2003). Effective use of technology in literacy instruction. In L.M. Morrow, L.B. Gambrell & M. Pressley (Eds.). Best practices in literacy instruction. The United Kingdom: Guilford: pp.307-331. Newcombe, N.S. & Huttenlocher, J. (2000). Making space: The development of spatial representation and reasoning. Boston: MIT Press. Plowman, L., Stephen, C. & McPake, J. (2010). Growing up with technology: Young children learning in a digital world. The United Kingdom: Taylor and Francis. Rudas, I.J., Fodor, J. & Kacprzyk, J. (2009). Towards intelligent engineering and infor- mation technology. London: Springer. Wallis, C. (2006). The multitasking generation: They’re emailing, IMing and downloading while writing the history essay. What is all that digital juggling doing to kids’ brains and their family life? Time, 167: pp.48-55. Wenger, E., McDermott, R. & Snyder, W.M. (2002). Cultivating communities of practice. Massachussets: Harvard Business School Press. Wright, C. (2001). Children and technology: Issues, challenges, and opportunities. Child -hood Education, 78 (1): pp.37-41. Zimmerman, F.J. & Christakis, D.A. (2005). Children’s television viewing and cognitive outcomes: A longitudinal analysis. Archives of Paediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 159: pp.619-626. Read More