Debates and Disagreements in Psychology - Essay Example

Topic: Critical Evaluation of Psychology as a Discipline Introduction The study and practice of psychology is increasingly directed by economic andadministrative pressures, which has forced psychotherapists to find very quick and efficient means to handle more and more complicated cases. The innovations in biological psychology and psychiatric medication have increased the tendency to find answers to psychological problems through biological mechanisms. Along with this psychotherapists also have to pay attention to individual and cultural diversity among their clientele. In this contrasting scenario, the need to critically evaluate the various aspects of psychology as a discipline is important. According to Kuhn (1970) and Pepper (1942), every science is built upon a consensually agreed upon paradigm or world view. Though, one may argue that the world view or paradigm will not remain static, but will change over time. Debates and Disagreements in Psychology As in any other field, psychology too has its share of debates and disagreements. The range of such discussion, however, cannot be accommodated totally in this essay. In psychology, different positions lead to different approaches. One of the major debates in psychology is between Reductionism and Holism. Reductionism is the view that complex phenomena can be best understood by reducing them to separate simpler parts. Descartes held that non-human animals could be reductively explained as automata (De homines 1622.) Reductionism holds that the dynamics of any complex system can be understood from studying the properties of its parts. Holism, on the other hand, has many connotations, applications and uses, which may not be specific. Another debate that rages in psychology is between Free Will and Determinism. The main issue is whether our behavior is guided by identifiable causes or do we function from free will. An interesting and entertaining disagreement has been proposed by Shlien for the theory of transference, which is at the heart of psychoanalytic tradition. He summarizes it, after quoting from Freud's writings on the subject, "So, the analyst is not responsible, the situation is not responsible... Transference is a neurotic peculiarity. Whether it is a normal (common) trait is also unclear, but the transference neurosis is a feature of analysis -- that is certain." (Shlien, J.M. (1984.) Relationship between Theory and Practice in Psychology Psychological science is not perfect. All the significant variables influencing the human behaviour are not known. Theories exist to be tested and disproved, so that more accurate theories can then be devised. Cognitive psychology focuses on theory and research, while the field of information architecture deals with the practitioner side. The process of translating research to practice is not a precise one and in this field of study research findings are often misapplied in practice. The relation between theory and practice in psychology can be best determined by using an illustrative example. Memory is one of the primary domains examined by cognitive psychologists, since encoding, storage, and retrieval of information constitute a significant portion of cognitive activity. When psychologists translate research on memory to practice, it is not always successful. A research established that humans can hold from five to nine chunks of information in short-term (temporary) memory. Based on this research, some practitioners claim that navigation bars (on the web page) should not be longer than nine items. The first flaw, in this thinking is that global and local navigation is meant to be present on every page within a given section of the website. Where is the need, therefore, to commit the navigation bar to memory Models to Explore the Methodological and Theoretical Debates in Psychology There are primarily three theoretical perspectives in developmental psychology - the structuralist perspective, the information processing/cognitive perspective, and the life-span developmental/developmental dimensions perspective. Each of these perspectives and their world view has led to different theories. The theories of Erikson (1982), Kohlberg (1963), and early Piaget (1950) are more consistent with the structuralist perspective (organismic world view), while those of Bandura and Walters (1963) and Newell and Simon (1972) are consistent with the learning and information processing perspectives, respectively (mechanistic world view). Riegel (1976) and Baltes et al., (1980), on the other hand, are consistent with the life-span developmental/developmental dimensions perspective (contextual world view). Methodological issues have also been strongly debated on. The two most commonly used designs in Methodology include the longitudinal and cross-sectional designs. The cross-sectional method has been defined by Baltes (1968) as, "Samples (S1 - Sn) of different ages (A1 - An) are observed on the same dependent variable once (O1) at the same time of measurement (T1)." The longitudinal method is defined by Baltes (1968) as, "One sample (S1 is observed several times (O1 - On) on the same dependent variable at different age levels (A1 - An), and therefore by definition at different times of measurement (T1 - Tn)." Developing Lines of Argument in Psychology Different lines of argument exist in psychology. Let us first consider an ethical issue regarding transgender concerns in children. Should transgendered children who have had a careful and protracted evaluation by a skilled gender specialist be compelled to complete puberty before being offered the same therapy used for adults No national or international protocol exists, and there are opposing views on how to proceed. One side argues that physical intervention should be delayed until the completion of puberty because teenagers are more likely than adults to change their minds about their gender identity. The opposing view, with which Norman Spack (Assistant Professor of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School) concur, argues for early endocrinologic intervention to prevent the severe depression that accompanies the onset of an unwanted puberty and to avoid the physically and psychologically painful procedures required to reverse puberty's physical manifestations. Effective Communication of Information, Ideas, and Solutions in Variety of Forms Communication is an extremely important process and depends on a perfect two-way delivery where there should not be any gap between what is communicated and what is perceived. Information collected can be effectively communicated to draw up an analysis. Buhrich (1981) investigated the psychological adjustment of a group of transsexuals and transvestites. Thirty-four transvestites, divided into two groups based on the intensity of feminine gender identity, and 24 transsexuals who sought SRS completed the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) and the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI). Although the results of the statistical analysis were not reported, the data showed that transvestites in Group 2 had poorer psychological adjustment than Group 1 transvestites and the 24 transsexuals. Buhrich concluded that the three groups showed greater psychological stress and scored higher on neuroticism and introversion than the normal population. Reference List: 1. Review - Critical Issues in Psychotherapy. Translating New Ideas Into Practice. Brent D. Slife et al. [Internet] (Updated NA) Available at: http://metapsychology.mentalhelp.net/poc/view_doc.phptype=book&id=1316 [Accessed 04 Jan 2010.] 2. Theoretical Perspectives Relevant to Developmental Psychology. Linda M. Woolf. [Internet] (Updated NA) Available at: http://www.webster.edu/woolflm/perspectives.html [Accessed 04 Jan 2010.] 3. Psychology and Therapy: Critiques and Debates. Shlien, J.M. (1984.) [Internet] (Updated NA) Available at: http://counsellingbooks.com/bibliography/psychology-and-therapy/critiques-and-debates.html [Accessed 04 Jan 2010.] 4. Reductionism versus Holism - Contrasting Approaches W ill y streng [Internet] (Updated NA) Available at: http://www.cas.uio.no/Publications/Seminar/Consilience_Ostreng.pdf [Accessed 04 Jan 2010.] 5. Debates in PsychologyReductionism Versus Holism Freewill Versus Determinism. [Internet] (Updated NA) Available at: http://74.125.153.132/searchq=cache:3lAQMd-f36sJ:www.peteranthony.org/IB%2520Psychology/Biological%2520Perspective/Debates%2520in%2520Psychology.ppt+Psychology+debates+and+disagreements+UK&cd=3&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=in [Accessed 04 Jan 2010.] Cognitive Psychology & IA: From Theory to Practice. Jason Withrow. [Internet] (Updated 11 Aug 2003) Available at: http://www.boxesandarrows.com/view/cognitive_psychology_ia_from_theory_to_practice [Accessed 04 Jan 2010.] Theoretical Perspectives Relevant to Developmental Psychology. Jason Withrow. [Internet] (Updated NA) Available at: http://www.webster.edu/woolflm/theories.html [Accessed 04 Jan 2010.] 6. Theoretical Perspectives Relevant to Developmental Psychology. Jason Withrow. [Internet] (Updated NA) Available at: http://www.webster.edu/woolflm/designs.html [Accessed 04 Jan 2010.] Transgenderism.Norman Spack, MD. 2005. Assistant Professor of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School. 7. Psychosocial adjustment in male-to-female transsexuals. Midence, Kenny and Hargreaves, Isabel. Journal of Psychology; Nov97, Vol. 131 Issue 6, p602, 13p 8. The Psychology of Communication. Saberi Roy. [Internet] (Updated NA) Available at: http://ezinearticles.com/The-Psychology-of-Communication&id=1488330 [Accessed 04 Jan 2010.] 9. Read More