Integrative and Evaluative Issues on Personality Psychology - Case Study Example

?Insert Chapter 11 Integrative Questions Question As Burger has d, the first two theories of personality are behavioural theory fronted by B.F. Skinner and John Watson; and Sigmund Freud’s Psychodynamic Theories (276). In light of these concepts, a humanist approach to personality is technically the third force. Whereas behavioural theories posit that the environment influences personality, psychodynamic theories support internal mechanisms over external factors in the development of personality. Humanist theories combine the other two theories, but advocates for free will as the basis for developing personality and behaviour change. All these theories draw parallels to the effect that human behaviour is not innate, thus can be modified. Question # 2 Carl Rogers and Sigmund Freud posited that individuals have hidden behaviours which they cannot identify on their own. The theories suggest that individuals operate in line with hedonistic morals, seeking unfettered pleasures in all their wishes. And whereas Freud supports an endless search for pleasure, regardless of the outcomes, Rogers’ theory advocates for a controlled process in which conflicts with the neighbours and the society in general should be avoided (Burger 279). An example of a conditional positive regard is when an individual with a violent character is blamed for starting fights, whereas an unconditional positive regard is when such a person’s behaviour is blamed on external environmental factors around him or her. Question # 3 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs begins with breathing as physiological need, for example; employment as form of security; family as form of love; confidence as a form of one’s esteem; and morality as a form of self-actualization. The achievement of this hierarchy of needs yields peak experience, a kind of interpersonal euphoria, coupled with happiness and content. Participants show these behaviours in a spiritual manner (Burger 285). Erikson's psychodynamic theory draws several parallels to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs because it describes the outcome of one’s social experiences throughout different stages of life. Apart from the innate nature of Maslow physiological needs, the remaining parts of the hierarchy are similar to Erikson's ego identity theory and how its level of satisfaction influences personality. Question # 4 Csikszentmihalyi argues that happiness is brought about by flow of activities (Burger 293). This means that individuals whoever concentrate on an activity to an extent that nothing else matters would be happy. Optimal experiences engross individuals in a “flow” to the extent that they do not consider time as a factor, mainly because they are having pleasant times or intend to benefit from the activities they engage in. The Flow Theory creates the personality trait of agreeableness. Although, my uncle enjoys a Bugatti ride, he takes only a two-hour ride every weekend. Besides, the unpleasant outcomes of costs associated with servicing the car after such rides really distress him and contravene the Flow Theory. Question # 5 According to Rogers, personality is influenced by an array of individual experiences, which mirror both the individual and neighbour’s perceptions of the same. The individual’s perception may be unconscious when it fails to see “hidden” individual traits as theorized by Sigmund Freud, hence the similarity of the two theories (Burger 281). Sigmund’s theory of mind is based on some bias that may hinder the notice of the hidden traits. Question # 6 As Burger has suggested, a person-centred therapeutic approach is based on the conscious victim’s side of the story (295). Such an approach happens in victims copying with divorce, for instance. In such a case, the therapist would use a Q-Sort to assess the person’s subjectivity by making them agree or disagree to a set of scientific questions directed at them. The use of a Q-Sort by a therapist would enable him or her to discover any changes in behaviour overtime. Evaluative Questions Question # 1 According to Burger, humanist theories underscore the vital state of free will and personal experience in the growth of personality (276). Nonetheless, people have individual experiences and varying levels of free will that is unique to them, which eventually impacts on their personality. Humanist theories are important because they tend to incline researchers toward appreciating human uniqueness instead of the general assumptions of personality. Question # 2 Oprah Winfrey is a self-actualized American woman whose philanthropic behaviour has seen her donate more money to the tunes of hundreds of millions to needy people (Kashyap and Srikanth 62). Oprah’s lower needs are completely satisfied; she has her physiological needs met, in as much as her safety, love and esteem. Question # 3 Last Sunday, I was woken up my best friend for an invitation to attend a church service in a different town. The sermons were inspirational and so was the preacher. With clear scriptures and hymns running on a projector screen, the congregation did not have to worry about opening the Bible or the hymn book. After that my friend and I took part in an enjoyable hike later on that day that was really an excellent “Flow” to the both of us (Burger 291). I was so much engrossed in the activities that I did not look at the time. Beginning my work tasks on time will avoid cases of a strenuous, last minute rush and make the work enjoyable because I would have adequate time to complete it. Question # 4 As manager, I would introduce employee physical fitness programs within the organization, grant them leave, and implement reasonable normal working hours in order to cater for their physiological needs. I would also ensure their safety on the job by motivating them to invest their earnings well, and pay their health insurance needs. I would then cultivate a sense of love and belonging within the workplace through teamwork; and boost their esteem by encouraging their autonomy (Burger 289). Finally, I would treat them morally, based on facts to ensure their self-actualization. If an employee said they wanted money, but are not satisfied with the job, I would ask them whether her physiological needs are being met. Question # 5 I agree with critics of humanist concepts that the theory is vague in the sense that real experiences and the level of free will often vary from one person to another and are therefore unverifiable (Burger 302). In light of its basis on too much common sense, the theory is non-scientific and will not stand the test of time. The main merit of humanist approaches is that, whereas other theories concentrate on the general factors affecting personality, humanists observe the uniqueness across individuals. Chapter 13 Integrative Questions Question # 1 Skinner and Freud’s theories of behaviourism are similar in the sense that they were influenced by positivism and determinism (Burger 343). Skinner’s side of psychoanalysis is evident in his citation of dream symbolism, use of metaphor, and human defines mechanisms. Both philosophers concur on the outcomes of the analyses of conscious versus unconscious control of human behaviour. Question # 2 As Burger says, social learning theory bridges the gap between the traditional concepts on Watson’s theory and Skinner’s concepts of adaptable behaviourism and modern concepts of cognitive psychology in the sense that human memory, opinion, thinking and language depend on the environment where an individual exists (352-356). Depending on the external factors, human beings can adjust to these conditions in different ways. Question # 3 Behavioural theories posit that personality is a consequence of interaction between the person and the external factors in an environment. The social cognitive concepts explain how individuals acquire and retain particular behavioural patterns, while remaining open to influence through intervention (Burger 353). Whereas both theories explain the reason behind children brought up in the same environment having different personalities, unlike behavioural theories, social cognitive theory may lead to modest behavioural changes to a child’s behaviour because s/he would retain the basic traits. These theories differ from a purely biological approach positing that genetics has a bearing on personality, and as such external factors might not influence one’s personality. Question # 4 Albert Bandura’s theory is not based on the voluntary method of changing behaviour is based on the superficiality of external, relatively forced or lacklustre attempts to modify behaviour. Instead he argued that vicarious, observable, and self-regulatory mechanisms have and do play an important role in psychological functioning (Burger 362). A humanist or a psychoanalyst would not agree because the latter group prioritizes free will and human experience in modifying human personality. Question # 5 Procedures of direct behaviour observation include; a) specifying a particular behaviour that the monitoring process will focus on to avoid time wastage on trivial behaviours; b) Evaluating the behaviour after a clearly defined observation period in order to notice any consistency in behavioural changes; c) sharing the acquired information with relevant parties like parents, instructors, students, therapists in order to secure adequate intervention mechanisms; and d) utilizing the behavioural results to monitor a specific behaviour in future for any changes. These procedures of direct behavioural observation differ from psychoanalytic assessment methods in the sense that the latter processes dig deeper into one’s childhood, emotions, and the external environment to determine behaviour (Burger 366). Question # 6 As Burger (366) has indicated, some of the analogue methods that a behaviour therapist can use to diagnose undesired behaviour and recommend the right therapies include: testing an individual’s patience to wait in a line and observing their behaviour in order to discover any undesired traits; and giving them instructions, and allowing some time to pass before asking them to recall the instructions. Diagnosing for impulsive behaviour requires seating people calmly together, or asking them to form a queue and serving them on first-come first-served basis. Testing their abilities to answer questions in a methodical manner can also reveal behaviour problems. Victims of impulsive behaviour will show spontaneity of behaviour. Question # 7 Burger argues that Watson’s empirical findings revealed that children’s behaviour can be modified in desired ways during their course of development (344-360). Skinner’s empirical research on operant conditioning revealed that human actions are dependent upon the effects; that positive behaviour can be encouraged through motivation and negative ones discouraged through punishment. Rotter and Bandura’s social learning theories empirically deduced that learning takes place through observation; and as such internal factors do not have a bearing on the learning processes. Watson’s main contribution was defusing claims that human behaviour is permanent and cannot be modified. Rotter argued that human environment plays an important role in learning and thought processes. Bandura dispelled claims that internal feelings and biological factors may hinder standard learning. Question # 8 Psychoanalysis generally explores early childhood factors in order to establish how these factors may have influenced the individual’s health and present situation in the early stages of development. Psychoanalytic therapy sessions are normally scheduled at least once a week and may extend over years depending on the gravity of the condition. Behavioural therapies are generally short-term interventions lasting between 10 and 20 sessions depending on the condition. Biological approach to therapy involves the use medical interventions to cure an illness. Depending on the nature of the case, biological interventions may last longer than behavioural interventions but shorter than psychoanalyses (Burger 360). Evaluative Questions Question # 1 Watson’s theory of behaviourism is based on the fact that human conduct can be gauged, indoctrinated, and transformed along certain, desired lines. By arguing that he can transform the behaviour of a dozen children into what he wants every one of them to be, Watson’s theory advances the concept that learning takes place through a child’s interactions with the events in his or her environment (Burger 343). I believe in behaviourism as one of the modern theories of understanding personality because children are not born whole, for instance, rather training instils discipline in them and enhances their intellectual capacity as well as thought processes as they grow. Question # 2 Burger (346) has noted that Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning is based on the fact that changing of operant behaviour in an environment where an organism exists is normally determined by its effects. According to Skinner, reinforcement of appropriate behaviour and punishing inappropriate ones is all about operant conditioning. In light of this reasoning, positive behaviour can delivered as a result of a favourable response, while a negative behaviour is often withdrawn following an unfavourable response to the deviant act. The main shortfall of the theory is that it lacks a conclusive explanation as to when a person’s behaviour originates from internal urges rather than external factors. Some deviances are caused by insufficient punishment to the subject; this is the dissonance that many researches have sought to remove. Question # 3 As a behaviour therapist I would not implement overt punishment because it lowers a child’s self-esteem, especially when the condition has an underlying medical condition. Whereas punishment is more effective and often yield longer lasting outcomes than reinforcement, changing the behaviour problem of the child cannot be achieved through punishment. In this case, reinforcement would nurture positive behaviour by ensuring that the victim is also fully part of the solution (Burger 348). Question # 4 Radical behavioural theories attempt to provide comprehensive solutions to the riddle of future individual behaviours (Burger 350). These concepts are driven by different environmental, individual, and behavioural factors. In the recent past, there has been a concerted effort and concerns over the introduction of these concepts to other disciplines such as health, learning, criminology, and energy to improve the human understanding of the riddle of behavioural change, and assist individuals who are at high risk of engaging in deviant behaviour in future avoid such behaviours. Owing to the overarching role of the social learning theory, covering the evaluation of behavioural change based on environmental, individual, and behavioural factors, it is apparent the theory is better than a purely behavioural approach when it comes to predicting criminal behaviour, for example. This has enhanced better policies to curb deviant behaviour. Question # 5 Self-efficacy therapy aims to improve an individual’s capacity to be optimistic in life, and build the belief in oneself to respond positively to demanding situations. Burger (362) has noted that self-efficacy therapy is therefore the improvement of an individual’s belief that he or she has the ability to plan and implement the necessary response to control situations in real time. Self-efficacy therapy is better than behaviour modification because it helps to identify the root causes of a psychological problem in a participatory manner. Unlike behaviour modification, self-efficacy improves solutions for drug abuse or healthy nutrition and weight control measures. Question # 6 There are four main approaches to achieving the Functional Behavioural Assessment (FBA). These are: indirect assessment, direct assessment, data analysis, and hypothesis statement (Burger 364). Firstly, indirect assessment is advantageous as it provides primary data for members of a team. The approach is achieved through structured interviews with the key participants in an educational plan like students, instructors, and other members who have a direct impact on the particular victim’s life. Secondly, direct assessment is advantageous because it entails observing and noting down situational issues surrounding an unwanted behaviour, thus yields accurate outcomes (Burger 365). Thirdly, data analysis is a form of secondary information sourcing strategy of functional behavioural assessment that requires the relevant parties to collate, compare, evaluate the information, and implement tested outcomes in a real life situation. Despite the fact that the approach is relatively simple, less costly, and provides a wide range of information, its use exposes the users to the limitations of the research in the use of the secondary data. Lastly, hypothesis statement involves the sourcing of information from the school records in order to create a hypothesis about the importance of the behaviours being investigated. In the real sense, the behaviour of children may vary and compromise the outcomes (Burger 368). As a behaviour therapist, I would integrate direct and indirect assessment methods of functional behavioural analysis, because the two methods often yield more accurate outcomes. Question # 7 According Burger (371), a schizophrenic patient with a biological underlying issue may still be provided behavioural therapy based on social learning theory in order to reduce the symptoms of the condition. Research also supports cognitive behavioural programs focused on the interests, abilities and power of the victims to yield appropriate outcomes, even in biological or medical conditions (Burger 372). Works Cited Burger, M. Jerry. Personality. New York: Cengage Learning, 2010. Kashyap, Debahuti, and Srikanth, Deepti. Oprah Winfrey's 'Celebrity Brand': Will it Work Wonders for 'The Oprah Winfrey Network'? IUP Journal of Brand Management, 8.1 (2013): 60-79. Read More