Effects of Oxytocin on Personality - Essay Example

? Effects of Oxytocin on Personality One of the hypotheses cited in psychology details that personality is purely biological. This derives from the premise that hormones render neurological and chemical alterations that propel personality. Oxytocin (OXT) plays a central regulatory function in human social behaviour and social cognition. Oxytocin changes the manner in which social cues are appraised. Oxytocin plays a critical role in the regulation of approach-and withdraw-related social behaviours. Oxytocin has acquired significant media attention for its potential in treatment for autism and social lubricant, as well as other disorders. Nevertheless, oxytocin should not be considered as a panacea. Research indicates that the experimental manipulation of oxytocin promotes positive interactions, trust, and cooperation. Oxytocin enhances the levels or ratings of extraversion and openness to experiences, especially for facets such as positive emotions, warmth, altruism, and openness to values and ideas. The paper explores oxytocin-related signalling and its contribution to human personality. ‘Oxytocin-related signalling comprises one of the most powerful single contributors to human personality.’ Discuss Introduction Oxytocin has been in the prominence for close to two decades right from the moment of association with the hormone to bonding between mother and offspring. The major question on oxytocin hinges on whether oxytocin can live up to the hype since the majority of the research does link oxytocin to increased trust, predisposition to charity, and social bonding. It is these constructive influences that make researchers confident that it could aid to treat mental health disorder, inclusive of autism, schizophrenia, and social anxiety disorder. Within the last two decades, research on oxytocin has gained significance for its influences on social behaviour in animals (Ebstein, 2010). A significant body of research indicates that oxytocin aids positive interactions and enhances cooperation, trust, and altruism in diverse experimental contexts. Based on animal research, the last decade has witnessed an increase in interests, in the influences of oxytocin on social cognition, and prosocial behavior in humans. The ongoing research on the topic has generated enormous excitement regarding highlighting the neurochemical underlying sociality in humans, and unearthing compounds to treat social functioning deficits (Meyer-Lindenberg, 2008). Nevertheless, an analysis of the literature indicates that the impacts of oxytocin within the social domain are frequently weak and/or incoherent (Churchland & Winkielman, 2012). This suggests that the constructive effects of OXT on prosocial behaviour may be dependent on the context or individual factors (Yamasue, 2012; Kumsta & Heinrichs, 2012). With regard to OXT’s impact on prosocial behaviour, several studies have exhibited either how contextual or individual variation factors modulate the impacts of OXT and the manner in which the neural impacts on the oxytocin matches its nuanced prosocial behavioural effects (Uvnas-Moberg, Arn & Magnusson, 2005). It is no doubt that human beings are an exceptionally social species. Social interaction pervades the whole of human society and the essential capability to form attachment is central for human relationships. Impairments within social behaviour have been linked to decreased quality of life and pathological states. Since humans are social beings, prosocial behaviour is critical for the interaction of individuals with their environment. Twin and family studies have demonstrated that distinctively human characteristics such as love, altruism, empathy, sense of equity, trust, music, economic behaviour, and even politics are partially hardwired. Outstandingly, genes such as the arginine vasopressin receptor, plus the oxytocin receptor add to social behaviour in a wide range of species inclusive of man (Uvnas-Moberg, Arn & Magnusson, 2005). Oxytocin within the hypothalamus represents the biological basis of social recognition, love, trust, and bonding (Beets et al., 2012; Yamasue, 2012). Oxytocin remains connected to complex social behaviour. In humans, intranasal oxytocin may facilitate trust, gaze, or face recognition, besides the infusion of oxytocin can enhance generosity (Ebstein, 2010). Animal studies have indicated that enhanced levels of oxytocin within early postnatal period may impact on behaviour, and last into adulthood and that the administration of oxytocin eases social recognition (Kumsta & Heinrichs, 2012; Meyer-Lindenberg, 2008). As an alternate or complimentary mechanism outlining the impact of oxytocin on social behaviour, oxytocin may change self-perceptions. Oxytocin may stimulate changes within an individual’s self-perceived accepting, altruistic, and socially-oriented traits that could uphold affiliative behaviour (Uvnas-Moberg, Arn & Magnusson, 2005). There is some, albeit thin, evidence consistent with the outlined proposal. Oxytocin has minimal or no influence on ratings of negative emotionality, depression, worry, self-esteem, perceived social support, conscientiousness, and rejection sensitivity (Kumsta & Heinrichs, 2012). The administration of oxytocin has been proved to enhance an individual’s self-perceptions of their personality, at least for certain traits essential for social affiliation (Clarkin, Fonagy & Gabbard, 2010). Enhanced positive self-referential processing entails one mechanism by which oxytocin facilitates positive social behaviour (Beets et al., 2012; Azar, 2011). Oxytocin has attracted significant attention centring on the neurological basis of prosocial behaviors that propel interpersonal relationships (such as perceptions on attractiveness, approachability, and trustworthiness). Given that personality traits remain perceived to be stable and enduring oxytocin marginally changes core perceptions of the self. In this context, the propensity to experience frequent positive emotions, and stimulate, and enjoy social interaction typifies extraversion while agreeableness typified by prosocial tendencies such as empathy, helpfulness, and consideration (Kemp, et al., 2012; Uvnas-Moberg, Arn & Magnusson, 2005). Extroverted and agreeable children are highly likely to be more socially competent in their youth, and their adulthood as the personality traits linked to positive responses from social partners (Yamasue, 2012; Clarkin, Fonagy & Gabbard, 2010). Hence, in line with the prosocial literature dwelling on oxytocin, oxytocin-provoked alterations within self-perception would possibly target extraversion and agreeableness, instead of other key personality factors such as neuroticism (Meyer-Lindenberg, 2008). The effect of Oxytocin on personality remains established marginally on aspects such as extraversion, warmth, openness to experiences, openness to ideas, openness to values, trust, altruism, and positive emotions. Recent evidence from research has indicated that oxytocin possesses differential effects on social behaviour depending on contextual factors. Oxytocin has not proved to enhance social cooperation in individuals viewed to be untrustworthy, uncooperative, or antagonistic (Meyer-Lindenberg, 2008). Other research indicates that the impact of oxytocin on cooperative behaviour depends on characteristics of the individual. As such, there is a need to understand the context-and person-dependent impacts of oxytocin on social behaviour that entails changes within self-perception (Kemp, et al., 2012). Increased self-perception of positive trait typifies in response to oxytocin aligns with the attainment of new social relationships occurring via three distinct alterations: enhanced salience of social stimuli; aided positive self-referential processing; and, enhanced positive self-referential processing (Azar, 2011). Investigations across species have demonstrated that the two elements (neuropeptide oxytocin and arginine vasopressin) plays a central role in encoding information pertinent to social interactions and remain essentially involved in the regulation of intricate social cognition and behavior, inclusive of attachment, social recognition, aggression, anxiety and fear-related behaviors, as well as social exploration (Meyer-Lindenberg, 2008). Vasopressin-and oxytocin-related neuropeptides are critical regulators of animal physiology, inclusive of reproduction and water balance. Studies suggest that vasopressin and oxytocin neuropeptides have been proved to modulate sensory processing in neural circuits that underpin behavioural plasticity. Both sexes may experience equivalent levels of oxytocin, although, the female experiences stronger effects (Churchland & Winkielman, 2012). Personality wise, oxytocin has been established to influence on touching, affection, and bonding (Beets et al., 2012; Higashida, 2010). In both sexes, oxytocin rises immediately with a single touch and also impacts of the social behaviour and mate selection. The bulk of outlined effects are confirmed in both humans, as well as animals. However, despite its constructive influences, high concentrations of oxytocin may inhibit cognitive ability by constraining learning and memory (Azar, 2011). The nonapeptide Oxytocin initially known to stimulate labour and milk can stimulate anti-stress-like effects manifested by reduction of blood pressure and cortisol levels. OXT also enhances pain thresholds, exerts an anxiolytic effect and stimulates diverse forms of positive social interaction. Repeated exposure to oxytocin renders long-lasting effects by impacting on the activity of other transmitters systems, a pattern that renders oxytocin to be clinically relevant (Heinrichs & Domes, 2008; Kemp, et al., 2012). This means that positive interaction entailing touch and psychological support can be health-promoting. Furthermore, diverse forms of psychotherapy involving transfer of support, empathy and warmth are likely to deliver similar effects (Clarkin, Fonagy & Gabbard, 2010). Empathy is a critical part of normal social functioning that enables individuals to appreciate the intentions of others, predict the behaviour of others, and experience the emotion elicited by their emotion (Kirsch, 2005). Oxytocin stimulates emotional extremes, but it also safeguards against depression. In the case of vasopressin made within the brain, the male hormone testosterone synergizes with vasopressin. Both sexes may manifest equal levels of vasopressin, although the man usually experiences stronger effects (Kemp, et al., 2012; Decety & Cacioppo, 2011). Vasopressin impacts on male social and sexual behaviour, as well as public communication and paternal behaviour. In mammals, vasopressin sponsors aggression, territorial competition, and supremacy among other males, and bonds males to mates and children (Bartz, Zaki, Bolger & Ochsner, 2011). Vasopressin promotes partner recognition, courtship behaviour, monogamy, sexual arousal, pair bonding, and male guarding (Dai et al., 2012; Azar, 2011). Depressed individuals report higher levels of vasopressin. OXT is a hormone essentially synthesized within the central nervous system and plays a critical function in the regulation of the development of prosocial behaviour and diverse reproductive effects such as lactation. In animal models, OXT is critical for social interaction, and results in animal studies have motivated investigation on the mechanisms of this prosocial effect (Higashida, 2010; Heinrichs & Domes, 2008). Recent studies indicate that the administration of OXT aid temporary attachment between strangers, augmenting trust, generosity, reciprocity, and constructively modulating sociality. Although, the cited studies suggest the potential of OXT to aid sociality, a few of published studies signify the contrary result whereby OXT is linked to antisocial effects such as mistrust, attachment insecurity, feelings of envy, and out-group derogation. OXT may upregulate parasympathetic and/or minimizes sympathoadrenal responses via several mechanisms. Receptors for OXT are located within pathways regulating the myelinated vagus that avails the neurophysiological substrates for social engagement. OXT receptors also aid to safeguard the autonomic nervous system during moments of extreme stress. OXT may also influence the autonomic control via its influence on neural structures such as the amygdala (Higashida, 2010; Decety & Cacioppo, J2011). Neuroimaging research has revealed that the impacts of OXT are reliant on the nature of the stimulus such that OXT satisfies Amygdala activation for fearful faces, but increases activity for happy faces. Pepulse inhibitor (PPI) of the shock response is mainly autonomic response that reverberates with social cognition in both animal models and humans (Heinrichs & Domes, 2008; Kirsch, 2005). A competent analysis of reality hinges upon the capacity to overlook or hinder perceptions of some of these stimuli. AVPRI (RS3 alleles) is linked to enhanced levels of PPI, especially among males. This observation is constant with a function for the promoter repeat region is moderately moulding social behaviour in animals, as well as humans. AVPR1a and OXTR indicate provisional linkage to both normal social behaviour and altered social behaviour (Higashida, 2010). AVR1a bear links to autism, a disorder typified by a core deficit in social interactions, and a linkage between SNPs across the OXTR gene and autism have been established. Oxytocin effects in humans have been demonstrated by behavioural studies indicating increased trust after hormone administration. Oxytocin potently minimized amygdala activation and minimized coupling to brainstem regions linked to autonomic and behavioural manifestations of fear (Decety & Cacioppo, 2011). This implies a neural mechanism for the effects of oxytocin within social cognition in humans and avails a possible therapeutic approach to social anxiety presently employed in social phobia and autism (Kirsch, 2005). These nonapeptides manifest an analogous chemical structure and play a critical function across vertebrates in moulding social interactions (Beets et al., 2012; Dai et al., 2012). Twin studies have shown that social phenotypes indicate significant heritability. Oxytocin bear links to empathic processing, evaluations of self-similarity, affiliative bonding, and parental care-giving yielding its consideration for treating interpersonal symptoms and negative affectivity (Heinrichs & Domes, 2008). In addition to its function in social behaviour and social cognition, oxytocin dampens of the stress response in humans. The best characterized AVP receptor from the point of social behaviour is AVPR1a that manifest a number of regions that observed for their linkage to human social behaviour (Yamasue, 2012). There is mounting evidence that AVP and OXT also accomplish the function of social hormones in humans (Bartz, Zaki, Bolger & Ochsner, 2011). Conclusion The last decade has generated close to a fourfold rise in publicized studies on the impacts of exogenous oxytocin on social cognition, as well as prosocial behavior in animals. Although, some similarities exist regarding the social effects of oxytocin across species, an analysis of extant data within humans divulges inconsistencies and minute effect sizes. Interactionists approach can be employed to illuminate the function of oxytocin within human social cognition and prosocial behavior. Oxytocin can be perceived to exert situation-invariant influences on behaviour such as enhancing social cognition or facilitating prosocial behavior. Nevertheless, empirical support for this assertion remains inconsistent, and the influences of oxytocin remain frequently moderated by contextual factors or by constant characteristics of individuals to whom oxytocin is administered. 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