Contribution of Psychology in Understanding of Criminal Behaviour - Essay Example

? Psychology has made a valuable contribution to our understanding of criminal behaviour. Discuss IntroductionThere are various approaches in psychology, which serve as perspectives that explain some assumptions regarding human behaviour. A single psychological approach may encompass several theories; however, these theories may tend to share similar assumptions. Each of the psychological perspectives tends to be different from the other; as a result, each perspective offers a different understanding of human behaviour. Some of the psychological perspectives include biological, cognitive psychology, humanism, behaviourist perspective, psychodynamic perspective, and psychoanalytic approach. The biological approach centres on the impact on biological aspects such as genetics in determining human behaviour. In the biological perspective, theorists focus on the impact of genes on human behaviour. According to these theorists, biological aspects such as hormones, chromosomes, as well as the brain have a profound impact on the behaviour of human beings such as gender. The behaviourist perspective encompasses the impact of the environment on people as well as animals. Therefore, behaviourism is concerned with the impact of environmental factors on observable behaviour. To behaviourists, people learn from their environment through two main processes known as operant and classical conditioning. Psychologists in the cognitive perspective study the process through which humans acquire knowledge. As such, this perspective centres on the mental functions such as perception, memory, and attention (Wood 2004, p. 44). Humanism emphasizes the study of a person as a whole; this commonly encompasses holism. Humanistic psychologists look at human behaviour through the eyes of the person behaving as well as the eyes of the observer. As such, humanistic psychologists hold the belief that the behaviour of individuals has some connections to his self-image and inner feelings. The psychoanalytic approach centres on the impacts of childhood events in explaining human behaviour. According to Freud, childhood events can significantly affect the behaviour of human beings during their adult life. Psychoanalysts believe that the behaviour of humans is determined by childhood experiences as well as the unconscious mind. All the psychological perspectives and approaches play a crucial role in explaining human behaviour. Human behaviour tends to be related to any of the approaches in psychology; this stems from the fact that all the approaches in have diverse explanations of human behaviour (Brewer 2000, p. 23). Discussion With their explanations of human behaviour, the psychological approaches have contributed significantly to the understanding of crime and criminal behaviour. Criminal psychology entails the professional study of the thoughts as well as behaviours exhibited by criminals. Criminal psychologists focus on studying why people commit crimes, assessment of criminals, evaluating the risk of recidivism, and make guesses that may have been taken by criminals after committing crimes. Criminal psychologists also help law enforcement agencies analyze how criminal offenders behave and help them solve crimes. In addition, criminal psychologist may also take part in providing expert testimony in courts (Wood 2004, p. 46). The most common role played by criminal psychologists includes criminal profiling, a practice that took centre stage during the Second World War. Organizations dealing with criminal offenders, such as the FBI, rely heavily on the offender and criminal profiling as a means of apprehending criminals. Criminal profiling helps law enforcement agencies with psychological evaluations and assessments of the suspected criminals. As a result, the agencies can come up with suggestions and strategies to be used in the process of interviewing criminals (Blackburn 1993, p. 35). Psychological research conducted over the years reveals a strong connection between psychology and criminal behaviour. Theorists have advanced theories that can accurately be used to understand the predisposing factors in criminal behaviour and the various characteristics possessed by criminals. Various psychological models of crime and criminal behaviour have developed; they range from early Freudian theories to other social, psychological and cognitive models that developed later. Psychological theories of criminality have several assumptions regarding criminal behaviour. One of the assumptions in these theories encompasses the belief that crime results from dysfunctional, abnormal, as well as inappropriate mental processes that relate to an individual’s personality (Glassman 2009, p. 50). Psychological theories of crime also purport that individuals may engage in criminal behaviour as long as the behaviour addresses some of their felt needs. Psychological theories of crime also hold that abnormal or defective mental processes have a multiplicity of causes. The causes may include improper conditioning, a diseased mind, the imitation of inappropriate role models, inappropriate learning, as well as adjustments to some inner conflicts. Psychology advances the argument that, since crime has many causes, some general principles targeting the individual can be termed as effective in the efforts to control and combat crime. However, approaches of crime in psychology maintain that there is a subset that can be regarded as a psychological, criminal type, which can be referred to as antisocial personality disorder or psychopathology (Gross 2001, p. 24). As a psychological model, psychoanalytic theory develops an argument on the causes of crime in individuals. Sigmund Freud, who came up with the psychoanalytic theory, posits that every human being tends to have natural urges and drives repressed in the unconscious part of the mind. According to Freud, all human beings possess criminal tendencies; as such, every person has the potential to commit crime and take part in criminal activities. Psychoanalytic theory argues that the process of socialization has a profound impact on the possibility of a person to engage in criminal activities and behaviour, which may lead to crime (Glassman 2009, p. 54). Childhood experiences can be attributed to the development of criminal tendencies; according to Freud, faulty identification by a child to the parents is the leading contributor to criminal behaviour. An improperly socialized child may tend to develop a disturbance in personality, leading to him or her directing antisocial impulses to the outwards or even inwards. Psychologists and psychoanalysts argue that children who direct such impulses to the outward end up becoming criminals. Thus, psychology plays a leading role in the explanation of how antisocial impulses and psychological disturbances play significant roles in the development of antisocial behaviour (Brewer 2000, p. 24). Another theoretical approach in psychology that has made a valuable contribution to the understanding of human behaviour includes the cognitive development theory. The cognitive development approach purports that criminal behaviour is as a result of the way people tend to organize their thoughts on a matter relating to law, as well as issues of morality. In 1958, a developmental psychologist, Lawrence Kohlberg, came up with a theory about the development of moral reasoning. He argued that there exist three levels in which moral reasoning operates; each of the three levels comprises of two stages. According to him, children are at the first moral development level during middle childhood (Blackburn 1993, p. 39). At this level, also known as the pre-conventional level, moral reasoning encompasses avoidance of punishment as well as obedience. Failure to develop obedience and avoid punishment at this level may lead to criminal tendencies. The second level of moral development encompasses the conventional level, which children reach at the end of middle childhood. Individual moral reasoning during the conventional level aligns on the expectations of the significant others as well as their families. The transition to the third level, which comprises of the post-conventional level, takes place during early adulthood. Individuals at this level have the capacity to go beyond what is known as social conventions; as such, they value the system laws, but can openly act as change agents who improve the existent law and order. Kohlberg argues failure to develop through these stages may lead to delinquent behaviour; this stems from the fact that lack of progress may lead to the arrest of moral development of individuals (Putwain 2002, p. 5). The learning theoretical approach in psychology also plays a significant role in the explanation of criminal behaviour and the tendencies to commit a crime. Learning theory is mainly concerned with the fundamentals of behavioural psychology. Behavioural psychology focuses on the argument that human behaviour is learned, and through its consequences and values for reward, it is maintained. The consequences may encompass external reinforcement, which occurs directly as a result of behaviour. The other consequences can entail vicarious reinforcement that results from the observation of other people’s behaviour, as well as mechanisms of self regulation, which may comprise of people responding to their own behaviour patterns. Deviant and criminal behaviour can be modified or eliminated by taking away the value of the reward that comes with the behaviour exhibited by a person (Hollin 1989, p. 26). In relation to the causes of crime, learning theory psychologists postulate that moral preferences can be learnt through operant conditioning, classical conditioning, as well as modelling. This argument came to being through the works of a psychologist known as Eysenck. He argued that children who undergo consistent punishment for inappropriate behaviour may develop unpleasant emotional and psychological responses whenever they want to engage in such inappropriate behaviour. The guilt and anxiety arising from the conditioning process trigger the development of a conscience. This conscience plays a crucial role in discouraging people from engaging in criminal behaviour (Ramsland 2002, p. 73). According to him, the development of criminal behaviour relates to the failure to feel guilty or anxious of committing a certain crime. Learning theorists also argue that criminals may exhibit deviant behaviour in early life due to lack of empathy, being self-centred and seeing other people as a means to achieve their ends. Psychology also contributes to the understanding of crime and criminal behaviour through its explanations on the relationship between intelligence and crime. The Constitutional-Learning Theory, advanced by Richard J. Herrnstein and James Q. Wilson, explains the possible causes of criminal behaviour. These theorists raise the arguments that there tends to be losses and gains in both noncriminal and criminal behaviour. They argue that the tendency to commit criminal behaviour occurs when the gains of the crime outweigh the losses. These psychologists also posit that equity and time discounting can be regarded as significant variables in the explanation of criminal behaviour (Gross 2001, p. 28). Time discounting has to do with the immediate rewards resulting from the act of committing a certain crime; this is in comparison with the punishment resulting from the crime or the time the reward could be gained through non criminal ways. Psychologists also argue that some people can be more prone to engaging in criminal acts than others; this results from the variability to delay gratification. Judgments of such aspects as equity may result to people committing criminal acts. Some people justify the gains, which emanate from crime with unjust treatment from the society. Variations in psychological arousal and intelligence can be regarded as constitutional factors when it comes to the committing of criminal acts. Wilson and Herrnstein purport that psychological arousal is at the core of determining the ease of classical conditioning in human beings. As such, people who may be unable to associate committing a crime with negative feelings may not be deterred from engaging in crime. These psychologists also argue that children, who have impulsiveness with low intelligence and have undergone poor socialization, can become criminals (Gross 2008, p. 62). Other psychologists who have advanced explanations of crime include Italian physician, Cesare Lombroso, who purported that some people have inborn predispositions to antisocial behaviour. Lombroso came up with physical characteristics of criminals, which included fat lips, high cheek bones, white teeth, as well as large ears. His theory has had a profound impact in the study of deviant behaviour such as a crime, as well as the study of juvenile delinquency. His research mainly centred on how criminal personality relates to genetics (Howitt 2002, p. 51). Another notable psychological approach to the issue of crime and criminal behaviour encompasses differential association. This approach holds that the entire society communicates conflicting messages regarding appropriate behaviour, norms, and how morals and beliefs should be defined. The learning of these conflicting messages in criminals takes place through exchanging information with peer groups and attitudes held within a group. According to psychologists, favourable attitudes towards crime in peer groups can make individuals adopt these philosophies, thus leading to criminal behaviour (Howitt 2002, p. 52). The strain theory is also another psychological theory, which can be used to explain criminal behaviour. This theory encompasses arguments on the goals for success in life, which may include achieving status, money, as well a career that tends to be highly rewarding. An experience of goal-blocking and the inability to achieve goals may make a person suffer negative emotions and effects, which may comprise of frustration and anger. In response to strain, the negative feelings experienced can result to a person turning to crime as a way of overcoming the frustration (Gross 2008, p. 65). Conclusion In conclusion, psychology has indeed made a considerable contribution to the understanding of crime and criminal behaviour. The various approaches in psychology have come up with explanations on the causes of criminal behaviour. According to psychologists, criminal behaviour has a multiplicity of causes, which range from the genetic makeup of persons to socialization. The conditions experienced by children during early childhood have a bearing on whether or not they will become criminals. The various arguments raised by psychologists regarding criminal behaviour have contributed to the understanding of crime in undisputed ways. References List Blackburn, R (1993). The Psychology of Criminal Conduct, London, Routledge. pp. 35-45. Brewer, K. (2000). Psychology and Crime, London, Heinemann. pp. 22-24. Glassman, W. (2009). Approaches to Psychology (5 ed), Barkshire, Heinemann. pp. 50-56. Gross, R. (2008). Key Studies in Psychology (5 ed), London, Hodder Education. pp. 60-67. Gross, R. (2001). Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behaviour (4th ed), London, Cengage Learning. pp. 20-31. Howitt, D. (2002). Forensic and Criminal Psychology, London, Pearson Education. pp. 50-53. Hollin, C. (1989). Psychology and Crime: an introduction to Criminological Psychology, New York, Routledge. pp. 22-60. Putwain, D. (2002). Psychology and Crime, New York, Routledge. pp. 2-15. Ramsland, K. (2002). The Criminal Mind (1st ed), New York, John Wiley & Sons. pp. 70-76. Wood, B. (2004). Understanding Psychology (2nd ed), London, Trans-Atlantic Publications. pp. 43-48. Read More