Behavioural Theory in Psychology - Report Example

Critically Evaluate the Notion That Behavioural Theory Has Contributed More Than Any Other Perspective To Our Understanding of How Children Learn Critical thinking Question Has Behavioural theory contributed more than any other perspective to our understanding of how children learn? Introduction Psychology is the science that deals with the study of behaviour as well as mental processes, an amalgamation of biology and physiology, a science that deals with the understanding of behaviour and mental processes, as these processes require scientific methods to view, illustrate, envisage as well as explain behaviours and mental processes. Behaviours are actions that can be observed directly, whereas mental processes involve understanding or experience that cannot be observed directly, such as feelings and thoughts. The origin of psychology is attributed to Rene Descartes and Charles Darwin. Descartes formulated a view that mind and body are separate and focused only on mind, Darwin believed that humans are part of evolution and coined the term, the process of natural selection and considered the role played by adaptation and environment on psychology. Contemporary psychologists surfaced the scientific study of behaviour as well as mental processes by means of six different perspectives. However each of these perspectives possesses their own advantages and disadvantages (Santrock, 2008). Behavioural Approach: This involves Behaviourism: It focuses on observable response as well as environmental determinants. John Watson and B. F. Skinner, the proponents of behaviourism, dominated the field of psychology throughout the first half of 20th century. Social Cognitive Theory: In order to understand behaviour and mental processes, role of environment must be incorporated in the study. A. Bandura, the proponent of this approach, integrated the role of environmental factors as well as mental processes in order to understand behaviour (Santrock, 2008). Psychodynamic Approach: Psychology of the individual is greatly influenced by the kind of experience an individual witnesses during the early stages of life as these experiences play an imperative role in adult psychology. Sigmund Freud is considered as the proponent of psychodynamic approach. Cognitive Approach: In order to understand psychology, mental processes such as attention, memory, perception, problem solving skills and thinking plays an imperative role. Behavioural Neuroscience Approach: It is a psychology that incorporates biology and genetics to understand behaviour of humans. The perspective involves the biological basis of mental process and behaviour especially considering the role of nervous system. It deals with the behaviour and its relationship to learning, perception, cognition, memory, emotion and motivation. It involves study of brain in relation to behaviour, functions, evolution, abnormalities, interaction with cardiovascular as well as immune system and repair. It examines the level of neurotransmitters being secreted by neurons, as well as fundamental biological processes which are responsible for the behaviour, both acceptable and abnormal behaviour (Web: Behavioral Neuroscience and Comparative Psychology, n.d.). Evolutionary Psychology Approach: Environment and its modifications play an imperative role in behaviour and mental processes of an individual. This perspective involves adaptive aspects of psychology. Socio-cultural Approach: This perspective involves social and cultural contexts which influence thoughts, actions and feelings (Santrock, 2008). Psychology as a Therapeutic measure: Psychotherapy is used to treat numerous psychological disorders and mental illness. The therapy involves communication and generating a dialogue in order to develop a therapeutic relationship to overcome the situation of problematic thoughts and behaviours. Besides psychoanalytic approach (a kind of psychotherapy which deals with the relationship between conscious and unconscious minds) as well as cognitive-behavioural approach (a kind of psychotherapy which involves an action-oriented form of therapy, that aims in changing the maladaptive thinking in order to alter maladaptive behaviours as well as negative emotions), constructivism in psychology plays an imperative role as a method of psychotherapy. Constructivism involves therapeutic method that focuses on internal as well as external systems in order to understand their worlds as well as experiences in a meaningful way (Ruskin, 2002). Behavioural Theory Behavioural theory is concerned with the observable behaviour of individuals, in contrast to psychoanalytical theory which involves mental as well as emotional processes which frame the personality of the individual. Behavioural theorists have categorized behaviour into two aspects the responses and stimuli. They are keen to know about how people learn to behave in a specific manner. This is the reason that behavioural theories are also called as learning theories. Behaviourism involves two types of learning: the classical or respondent conditioning and operant or instrumental conditioning (Crandell, 2011). Behavioral Theories of Child Development Behavioral theories of child development spotlight on the influence of environmental interaction, which involves the theories formulated by Watson (1878-1958), Pavlov (1849-1936) and Skinner (1904-1990). However, theories given by these theorists, deal with observable behaviors. Behaviour of an individual are attained through habituation and training. As the child grows from infant to childhood stage, s/he starts grasping his immediate surroundings, the affection and attention that s/he gains from every member in his vicinity. In these formative years, behaviour and social interaction with the society paves the way for grooming the personality of the child. It is essential that alterations be made in the behaviour when unhealthy attitude is observed. In some grave cases repeated motivation to change the behaviour is required which may or may not be related to therapeutic issues (Web. Cavella). Basic Principles of Behavioural Theory Behaviourism is the theory that human nature can be fully understood by the laws inherent in the natural environment. Behaviourism was fist defined by Descartes, based on the idea of a stimulus. Descartes called the persona a machine dependent on external events whose soul was the ghost in the machine. Behaviourism does not define the internal workings of the individual. According to behaviourist, Skinner, individuals are not anything other than plain intermediaries between behaviour and the surrounding environment. The behaviour theory is able to explain behaviourism and various behaviours displayed by human beings, but it is unable to explain the human memory and language skills (Web. Naik). Theories in the Social behavioural perspective (Strengths and weaknesses) This is also known as social learning perspective, which suggests that human behaviour is solely a learned phenomenon as persons interact with their surrounding environments constantly. However, behaviourists differ among themselves in relative to the procedure through which behaviour is learned. Chief descriptions of behaviour theory have been presented with diverse mechanisms of learning. These are: Classical conditioning theory This theory is also acknowledged as respondent conditioning. It observes behaviour as learned through association. Learning is comparatively enduring alteration in actions and is the product of experience. Classical conditioning is a kind of learning process where correlation is established between neutral stimuli as well as stimulus that elicits the reaction. E.g. Pavlovs’ experiment with dogs for “salivary reflex”. Pavlovian conditioning is considered as the first order conditioning, it encompasses an understanding about a neutral stimulus (NS), unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and when both are combined unconditional response (UCR) is elicited for conditioned stimulus (CS) and conditioned response (CR). However, gradually, US are not required for the occurrence of response. The most vital components of learning comprise alterations that an organism witnesses for US and not for CS, since unconditioned stimulus is a reflex phenomenon and is associated with the biology, but learning involves modulation from US to CS, attributed to behavioural as well as physiological conditions (Mcleod, 2008a). Thus, it can be inferred that an initial neutral stimulus has generated a behavioural response on repeating it with another significant stimulus. This theory explains anxiety disorder which is induced when an individual undergoes a humiliating experience in public speaking; this lasting fear induces anxiety whenever s/he is asked for a public speak. Second order conditioning occurs when NS generated is linked with CS, additional conditioning takes place. Thus, response is generated by the second CS, irrespective of first SC and UCS; implying that novel conditioned responses can be learned or acquired (Schwartz & Lacy, 1982). The second order and first order conditioning explains the frightening UCS which may cause irrational fears as well as phobias. This was explained with the study carried out by Watson and Rayner (1920) where little boy was classical conditioned with the fear for rats. When the boy approached for rats a loud noise was created to develop fear, gradually he developed fear not only for rats but for all furry animals (second order conditioning) (Mischel, 1993). Modern classical conditioning This was demonstrated by Rescorla (1988), explained temporal relationship between UCS and CS could not explicitly explain Pavlovian conditioning but it could be explained with UCS. Further, this was explained with the experiment performed by Kamin (1969) where rats were exposed to the tone and this was followed by shock. However, the tone became the CS. When rats were exposed to tone and light no CS occurred due to light indicated that tone has induced the information of arrival of shock, thus light could not provide rats with new information (Schwartz & Lacy, 1982). 2. Operant conditioning theory This theory is also acknowledged as instrumental conditioning, which observes behaviour as an outcome of reinforcement. Thus, operant conditioning is a kind of learning process where the prospects of learning are directly proportional to the augmentation and reduction of the process based on reinforcement or punishment. Thorndike’s law of effect Thorndike believed that most behaviour in the natural environment could not be explained with Pavlov’s classical conditioning theory. He carried out an experiment to demonstrate that the desired behaviour becomes dominant and occurs at faster pace in the subsequent trials or experiments. In his experiment he kept a cat in a cage and hanged a salmon outside it, in its initial trials the cat displayed the behaviour of scratching the bars and tried to reach through bars when suddenly it pawed on the latch of the cage and the cage opened. In the subsequent experiments the cat reached for salmon by opening the cage in less time interval. Thus, the desired outcome dominates the undesired ones. The idea of Thorndike became law called as law of effect (Schwartz & Lacy, 1982). Skinner’s positive and negative reinforcement Studies carried out by B. F. Skinner, highlighted the fact that behaviour triggered by law of effect was designated as operant conditioning. Behaviour gets strengthened when it is supported by positive outcomes while it is weakened when it is followed by negative outcomes. This is witnessed in everyday life where positive reinforcement is appreciated with simple smile or praise or reward, it is inculcated in the individual’s psychology as pleasing behaviour. Conversely, negative reinforcement checks the individual to avoid unpleasant behaviour. The operant conditioning inculcates discipline in child (Schwartz & Lacy, 1982). Operant response is different as compared to the Pavlovian conditioning. In operant response the stimuli does not elicit any response, they are guiding the response towards positive or negative, the stimuli in operant response is called discriminative stimuli. Discriminative stimuli are able to discriminate between good and bad outcomes, called as fruitful response. The discriminative response is observed when one sees the red light in traffic signal which indicates that the driver needs to apply breaks, however, it is evident that if they do not follow the law they will have to bear with negative outcomes (Schwartz & Lacey, 1982). Contribution of behavioural theory to the management of behaviour The behavioural theories emphasize on the fact how the environment shapes the personality of the individual, certain motivation factors provide an impact on the individuals behavior, it came into picture when introspection and psychoanalysis were prevalent and laid prominence on observed stimuli and behaviour responses (Web. Models of Understanding Human Behavior, n.d.). The Role of Social Learning Theory According to Pritchard and Woollard (2010), “human learners depend upon the social interaction with the people around, such interaction acts as a stimulus, shared and challenge activities which act as a promoter of thinking, engagement with ideas and activities and serve to allow for intellectual growth, including the growth of knowledge and understanding”. Social learning theory states that learning is a highly social activity. Children learn in a better way if they are socially active. Social interaction shapes the personality of the child, although this is not explained in the behavioural theory, where social interaction is not defined in the learning. Social learning theorists defined the methods in which social interface with those in the vicinity irrespective of their relationship has influenced learning profoundly (Pritchard and Woollard, 2010). Constructivist Ideas for Learning According to van Hermelen (2008), “Knowledge is created by learners in the context of and as a result of social interaction”. van Hermelen (2008), further defined the role of social constructivism in perceiving knowledge and highlighted the importance of social interaction as, “Social constructivism has a central precept that knowledge is created by learners in the context of, and as a result of social interaction”. Constructivism, in context of learning, deems that entities build their own perceptive of the world around them by hoarding information and then interpreting it relative to preceding experiences. Both social constructivists as well as social learning schools conclude that learning is highly social activity (Pritchard and Woollard, 2010). These theories highlight the fact that knowledge, understanding and learning are directly proportional to social interactions. Children who interact more with people belonging to different age groups, are better learners. Social Context and Its Significance to Behavioural Views According to the behaviourists, learning is the process of conditioning, and reinforcement which could be positive (rewarded) or negative (punished), however, such behavioural views holds true in certain trainings as well as in schools. These behavioural theories could not explain learning in terms of social interaction. However, in classrooms learning is enhanced with better social interaction (Pritchard and Woollard, 2010). Vygotskian and Neo-Vygotskian Ideas According to Vygotsky “Full cognitive development requires social interaction.” This is indicative of the fact that human learners depend on the social interaction, which acts as the stimulus and contributes in intellectual growth in terms of knowledge and understanding. According to Vygotsky, learning involves three major social constructivist domains: the people around the learner, they play the chief role in the process of learning, as they may influence the learner to a greater extent. The second is how the learner sees the world; it influences the intellectual development of the learner. The third is learning tools encompassing language skills, culture and the people. Social dimensions are contributed by others especially those around the learner (Pritchard and Woollard, 2010). Further, Vygotsky inferred that, cognitive development as well as language is formed by a person’s interface with others. It is evident that children’s knowledge, attitudes and values develop by means of interaction and the kind of interaction they get from those who are in their vicinity. Social interaction directly influences the level of thinking of the child, interaction occurs in classroom since teaching and learning are considered as social activities (Pritchard and Woollard, 2010). Compare the Information Processing Model Which Concentrates On Attention and Memory, With Behavioural Theory Behaviourism is concerned with observable characteristics and is not concerned with thoughts and emotions, accordingly, individual do not have their freewill and environment acts as a determining factor for their behaviour predisposition. According to behaviourist theory, behaviour is the resultant of stimulus and response. Conversely, cognitive psychology observes individual as a computer which processes information. Both mind and computer process information in a desirable manner in order to study the internal mental or the meditational processes encompassing stimuli form the environment and the response that individual displays. The computer became a metaphor for cognitive psychologists (McLeod, 2008b). Individual Differences in Intelligence & Motivation Related to Behaviourism Although behaviourism has affirmed objectives in understanding human behaviour but there is a steady disparity in the level of performance of individuals. A study carried out by Williams et al., (2008) reveals that besides difference in intelligence, individuals also differ in their speed of processing information, their working memory as well the learning. Conclusion Child development which occurs right from birth till the child attains adulthood, gained little interest of researchers; however, child development study is not confined to the physical growth only but with time child development has become a subject of great concern encompassing cognitive abilities of the child, social growth, interactions, usage of language etc. for overall growth and development (Web: Cherry). Mind processes help an individual to take hold of or grapple industrial organization, move of the competitors, getting ahead in the augmenting competition, designing curriculum, learning temperament, memory skill enhancement to survive in the mounting competition. The most imperative characteristic of mental process and behaviour predisposition is unconscious motives, childhood experiences, conflicts and developmental issues all are responsible for a congenial and intellectual development that shapes the behaviour of a child. As a result, personality of the child is reflection of these characteristics which behavioural theories fail to explain; cognition plays an imperative role in the process of learning. Social learning theory explains the cognitive engagement in the process of learning. Thus, it is not behaviourism but the social learning theory that acts as a connecting link between cognitive learning theory and behaviourist theories. A child learns not only in school but also outside the school through social interaction. As stated by Vygotsky child’s cultural development, memory and attention appears at two levels, social and individual. Bandura (1997) explained that learning is possible by observing others and thus there persists a bridge between behaviourism and social learning. References BANDURA, A. (1997) Self-efficacy: The Exercise of Control. New York:W. H. Freeman. Behavioral Neuroscience and Comparative Psychology. (n.d.) [online] Available at http://www.apa.org/about/division/div6.aspx. 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