Advantages and Disadvantages of the Concept of Changing Teachers in the United States - Essay Example

?Chapter Introduction In the past few decades, the concept of teacher turnover in the United s has permeated literature and philosophy. Researchers, like Ingersoll, have developed multiple theories as to why such large numbers of turnovers in education exists. Ingersoll states, “Of those who leave because of job dissatisfaction, most link their turnover to several key factors: low salaries, lack of support from school administrators, lack of student motivation, student discipline problems, and lack of teacher influence over school decision making (145). While Ingersoll discussed the specific reasons for teacher turnover, Nieto, another researcher, (2003) decided to look at the problem from a different perspective. She questioned why teachers might stay in their jobs instead of why teachers leave. She believes that urban teachers would be much more effective if they were given more professional development and support. Both Ingersoll and Nieto found that there was high demand in the education system for teachers who were willing to influence, inspire, and persist within their profession. Although I am not an American citizen, I experienced the difficult process of finding a good school for my three children. At first, locating a high quality school was not easy because I was unfamiliar with the system, but it did not take long before I understood the pattern. I knew that if I wanted my children to attend a good school, I would have to avoid the ones with a high number of minority students. Back then, I wondered what school I might place my children in if I was a recent emigrant. If I were in this predicament, I might have ended up enrolling my children in an urban school. As I entered the graduate program, I kept thinking about that matter. I thought about issues such as equity, multicultural education, and social justice. The issues of motivation and persistence, however, were not yet a part of my thought processes. As I delved deeper into my own education and gained experienced in certain fields, I started to develop a clearer vision about the research that I wanted to do. I started to think about the teachers who stayed in the urban schools to help minorities and those with lower socioeconomic statuses (SES). What kept them there and how did they persist? Background The annual teacher attrition rate in high-needs schools in the United States is approximately 20% (Ingersoll, 2001). Teacher attrition is a result of teachers deciding to leave their professions, often after just a few years. There are several factors that contribute to teacher attrition such as budget cuts, classroom overcrowding, and unavoidable high-stakes testing (Ingersoll, 2001). Furthermore, Smith and Ingersoll, (2004), and Steinberg and Kincheloe, (2004) reported that, nationally, high-poverty schools located within urban communities have higher teacher attrition rates when compared to the more affluent school districts. The United States’ history of inequity in education has created many ill-equipped and understaffed inner city schools as well as rural school districts. These under-resourced schools tend to be racially segregated as well. They are particularly lacking in the fields of science, technology, and mathematics (Darling- Hammond, 1999; Tate, 2001). Ingersoll (2001) reports that teacher turnover in urban districts results in schools with many part-time and substitute teachers, new and unqualified teachers, and often requires individuals to teach out of their field of expertise. Urban schools are also more likely to fill vacancies with teachers who are less-than qualified and require additional on-the-job training (Ingersoll & May, 2009). In the field of science education, there is increasing concern about teachers who are leaving too. Darling-Hammond (2003) hypothesized that the high reason of turnover was because of the dissatisfaction with the low salaries in the teaching career. Shugart and Hounshell (1995) found that teachers who had more advanced scientific knowledge and expertise were more likely to reject the idea of teaching or to leave the teaching profession after a shorter period of time. Nevertheless, the subject of science continues to attract attention as the need for teachers entering this field with advanced knowledge remains high (National Science Board, 2006). Equity is central to the current reform movement in science education. In response to calls for change in Science for all Americans, Rutherford and Ahlgren (1990) present a vision of science literacy for all students. The goals established in this seminal work, combined with the Benchmarks for Science Literacy (AAAS, 1993) described in a companion report by the American Association for the Advancement of Science's (AAAS) Project 2061, set the stage for reform. It states that all students deserve equitable access to challenging and meaningful learning and achievement in science regardless of race, ethnic group, gender, socioeconomic status, geographic location, age, language, disability, or prior science achievement (AAAS, 1993, p. 20). This concept has profound implications for teaching and science education throughout the school community. Unfortunately, the Science for all Americans concept is not being utilized in many schools in the nation, especially in the urban ones. Many teachers working in urban schools tend to be less experienced and poorly prepared when compared to those who work in suburban school districts (Nieto, 2003). Ingersoll (1999), in a previous study, showed that students who attended urban schools had limited access to science due to the shortage of certified science teachers or because the administration at these urban schools did not care about hiring highly-qualified science teachers. Therefore, looking at why science teachers stayed, rather than why they left, might hold the answer to further develop knowledge about retention and teaching science in urban schools. Teachers stay in education for some of the same reasons they enter the teaching field: trust, confidence, faith in their students and in their subject matter, a continuing feel of hope and responsibility, and the rewards of meaningful relationships (Nieto, 2003, Williams, 2003). Nieto identified internal factors as well such as love, hope, possibility, anger, desperation, intellectual work, and the belief in the talent to structure the future. For Neito, staying in urban schools is associated with a teacher’s love, belief, and respect for their students (2003). By identifying and understanding personal and professional features, behaviors, and school settings associated with a teacher’s decision to remain in the profession, educator preparation programs and supervising administrators should design programs to reinforce the confidence and success of teachers. Neito’s research made me think about topics such as resiliency, enthusiasm, and self-motivation. As I read about mobility and turnover versus retention and persistence, I came across a variety of motivational theories. It is an almost universal concern today to find ways to self-motivate and to energize oneself and others in businesses, workplaces, and in education. Given the high demands placed on people within their working lives, particularly in the Western World, this need to find motivation and ways to motivate others is absolutely essential. In education, it is vital for both learners and teachers to find ways to maintain an enthusiastic approach to learning. Although much is made of finding ways to keep students motivated, it is also essential that teachers find ways to motivate themselves, given the high demands and stresses they face in their schools. Teacher motivation has to do with their overall attitude towards work, and a teacher’s desire to contribute through pedagogical practices within the school environment (Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008). Educational research implies that motivated teachers expend effort to succeed, and that motivation can influence when and how they perform (Pintrich & Schunck, 2002). There are two types of motivation: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation is affected by factors unrelated to the task that a person is performing.Some examples of extrinsic motivation are money, good grades, and other external rewards (Brophy, 2005). Teachers who are extrinsically motivated are goal oriented, and they may pay little attention to their own happiness and personal development (Ryan & Deci, 2000). For this person, achievement is the only aim that gives them joy (O'Neill, 1995). An extrinsically motivated teacher may perform an activity/duty in order to obtain a reward such as a salary. On the other hand, intrinsic motivation refers to inner and authentic inspiration, which a person reacts to without any expectations (Ryan & Deci, 2000). In this frame of mind, teachers decide to do something because they like it, or because they decide it is a beneficial thing to do for their students. A teacher who is intrinsically motivated may undertake a task for its own sake, for the satisfaction it provides, or for the sheer joy of accomplishment and self-actualization (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008). Johnson, Berg and Donaldson (2005), and Waddell (2007) found that intrinsic motivators shape a teacher’s decision to remain teaching. These researchers report that teachers choose their profession because they feel they have a calling for this type of work and a passion for sharing knowledge. This study argued that intrinsic motivation is an essential characteristic for educators. The external controls on teaching and teachers in most Western countries makes it very challenging for teachers to maintain a sense of motivation, energy, and commitment. It is only through the development of an internal sense of motivation, commitment, and ongoing dedication that the teacher will avoid dissatisfaction and disappointment in their career. It is further suggested that school leadership, on the level of local and governmental management, needs to take this necessity into account. Styles of management in schools and within the teaching staff are specifically noted as being an essential component in empowering teachers toward self-motivation and self-actualization within their careers. A theory that is particularly relevant for this study is the Self-Determination Theory (SDT). Self-determination is a combination of attitudes and abilities that guide individuals to set aims for themselves and to take the initiative to reach these aims. This theory proposes that human motivation is dependent on a human’s feelings of “autonomy, competence, and relatedness” (SDT web page, 2011). It is where the conditions are most suited to growing these feelings in individuals that the highest motivation, engagement in, dedication, success, and persistence can be found. Purpose Statement As the teaching profession explores why many teaches leave the teaching field, it is important to examine the perspectives of those who recruit and retain individuals. Therefore, the study explores the perspectives of high/middle school science teachers, focusing on the reasons why they chose to stay and teach in urban settings, despite the availability of other career options. The study also looks at their perspectives of the motivational factors that influenced their retention. This study will examine a range of intrinsic motivational factors contributing to teacher career choices at multiple levels. Mixed methods designs give pragmatic advantages when exploring complex research questions. The qualitative data can clarify and support survey responses, and statistical analysis will help in giving a detailed assessment of response patterns about motivation. Mixed method design was employed in this dissertation to gain an in-depth understanding of why teachers chose to remain, despite the issues we read and hear about in urban settings. The results of this study could shed light on some science teachers’ perceptions about continuing to be employed in an urban setting. The reasons identified in the findings could be used to develop support groups, professional development activities, and programs to aid teachers in dealing with the issues in urban schools. Research Question The study explored potential differences in perceptions of what motivates teachers. The dependent variable of the study being the level of perceived autonomy, relatedness, and competence. The independent variables of the study being years of experience and ethnicity. It also investigated how the decision to stay was affected by the science teachers’ practices and identity. Therefore, my questions are: What factors (years of experience and ethnicity) affect science teachers’ motivation (autonomy, relatedness, and competence), which caused the persistence in urban settings? How was the decision to stay affected by the science teachers’ practice and identity? Definition of Terms Turnover: Teacher’s turnover consists of teachers leaving the profession, changing field of profession or schools. Teacher Attrition: Those who leave the occupation of teaching altogether (Ingersoll, 2001). Mobility: The movement or transfer from one school or school district to another. Qualified teachers: A teacher who has a state certified degree in an education program or has passed the state teacher licensing exam. Beliefs: A subset of a group of constructs that names, defines, and describes the content of mental states that drive a person‘s actions (Zheng, 2009, p. 74). Urban culture: Refers to behavioral patterns of cities and urban areas (Clark, 1996). Urban schools: Refers to schools in high-poverty areas, which serve students of low-socioeconomic status (McKinney, Berry, Dickerson, & Campbell-Whately, 2007). Significance of the Study The existence of inequity in the educational system in general and science, in particular, has become part of the American common sense issue. Yet, thinking about possible solutions to this problem through a pessimistic lens might not be the most advantageous way to create good results for urban schools. Motivation to teach specifically in urban settings becomes an important piece of the sustainability of schooling. There were studies that showed how significant changes can be made to a school when it has teachers who help to close the achievement gaps and provide opportunities to their students (Carey, 2004). I expect to offer suggestions in the concluding chapter about each teacher’s individual source of motivation. This information may allow proper career development to occur for the teacher profession specifically and the urban schools in general. Ideal career development matches the needs of the organization with the needs of the individual. The findings may help provide useful data to administrators in urban school districts in increasing teacher retention through increasing intrinsic motivation. It will also provide school district administrators with information about the views of teachers in urban districts. It may also identify strategies and plans that appear to be working. In addition, this study will provide helpful suggestions to expand existing programs within urban districts or suggest new programs to assist teachers with better management in an urban school environment. Understanding the psychological and demographic constructs of retention and personal motivational sources will help to increase the level of motivation for teachers to educate and engage in science and create an enhanced opportunity for success in science for a diverse student population. Limitations of the Study The study will take place in Arizona. As a result, the outcome of this study will be restricted and limited to Arizona’s urban high school districts. Generalizability may be limited by the size and location of the school districts involved in the study. The number of teachers involved in the study may also limit generalizability. This study will be limited to the teachers’ perceptions of their own job satisfaction and their feelings toward being employed in an urban setting. The responses of the participants in the study may or may not be representative of other teachers in different urban settings. Overview of the Following Chapters The study consists of six chapters. Chapter 1 has provided the problem statement, the purpose of the study, the research questions, significance of the study, and definitions of terms. Chapter 2 consists of a conceptual framework on motivational theories and a literature review. The conceptual framework will serve in driving the research. In addition, a literature review that reviews representative literature related to motivation theory, science education, and teaching in urban school settings is also included. Chapter 3 describes the methodology used in gathering data for this research. It presents the research design, the population, sample, instrumentation, data collection process, and data analysis procedure. Summary Within the first chapter of this dissertation, the topic of teacher turnover is introduced to the reader. The concept of turnover in the education field appears to a problem that has been growing steadily over the past few decades. This seems to be especially true for science teachers. In fact, it is enough of a problem that researchers have begun to turn their focus onto the issue in order to understand why more and more teachers are leaving the profession, and what sort of solutions might exist in order to attract and keep teachers at schools. Some of the reasons for teacher turnover that are discussed in this paper include low salaries, little support, lack of education or experience, and problems with student behavior and class size. Urban districts, in particular, are said to have more teacher turnover than affluent and suburban school districts. The idea of extrinsic versus intrinsic motivation is thought to be an important factor in lowering the rate of teacher turnover. Extrinsic motivation is described as being motivated by outward elements such as money, and intrinsic motivation has more to do with internal rewards such as personal satisfaction. This paper makes a point to focus on the more positive side of teacher turnover. Instead of looking at teachers that left their professions and why they chose to do that, the study will focus on the teachers who decided to stay and their reasoning's for that. This is deemed to be an important distinction and plays a large part in the overall study that is to be conducted in Arizona. This extrinsic and intrinsic motivation factor appears to be at the center of the dissertation’s study. Teachers in the urban school districts of Arizona will be studied in order to ascertain what motivates them as teachers. By coming to understand what exactly motivated teachers in this area, education administrators may be better able to keep teachers for longer periods of time and may help them to develop better support for their employees as well. The limitation of this study is that it is being conducted in a specific state and specific school district, which creates the possibility that motivation factors will not be representative of teachers everywhere. Read More