Political Theory of Rene Descartes - Essay Example

Introduction and Biography Prior to the era of Rene Descartes the dominant philosophical views and theories were based on Aristotle. His philosophical writings were dominant during the Middle Ages in Europe. Scholasticism was also prevalent during that time. The eastern religions most notable, Christianity, were influenced by this type of philosophical view. Descartes did not share this traditional philosophy. His new philosophy differed from Aristotelian view and later developed as the new mechanistic sciences. Through his writings and promotion of new philosophical theories he earned the title, “Father of Modern Philosophy.” René Descartes was born in France on March 31, 1596. He was the youngest of his siblings. He was born into a bourgeoisie family, his father being an intellectual and a councilor in parliament. Descartes mother died soon after his first birthday and he and his siblings were sent to live with their maternal grandmother who lived in the same town. At the age of eight years old he started to attend a Jesuit boarding school in 1607. As a result of his delicate health he was allowed certain privileges. Descartes was exempted from attending morning prayers with the other boys which began as 5.00 a.m. He was allowed to stay in bed until 10.00 a.m. when morning mass began. He continued his education at this Jesuit college until 1612. He went to Paris soon afterwards and between 1615 and 1616 devoted his time to the study of Mathematics. During this time he also received a degree and a license in canon law from the University of Poiters. He also devoted some time studying philosophy, theology and medicine. After leaving University of Poiters he did a short stint in the military in Netherlands. During his stay in Netherlands Descartes met Isaac Beekman who reawakened his interest in mathematics. After leaving Netherlands Descartes went on to serve in the army of Maximilian of Bavaria. His first major writing Le Monde was never published until after his death in 1664. He published La Géométrie in 1637. This combination of algebra and geometry helped to create Cartesian geometry. He later wrote three important essays on philosophical thinking. They were Discourse on the Method of Rightly Conducting the Reason and Seeking Truth in the Sciences, Meditations on First Philosophy, and Principles of Philosophy. Descartes was invited to Sweden by Queen Cristina to join the Queen’s court in Stockholm. Prior to that, the two were corresponding by writing where they discussed moral issues. Unfortunately Descartes finally succumbed to his frail health and died in 1650. Summary of Writings In Discourse on the Method Descartes believes that everyone receives the same measure of good sense but it depends on how it is used. He believes, however, that he had the chance of being in some circumstances that allowed him to make certain progress. He also realizes that man can succumb to delusions. Although he studied in one of the most prestigious schools in Europe he was not satisfied with the sciences he was taught and had many doubts and misgivings. He, nevertheless, held certain studies such as language, literature, poetry, mathematics in high esteem although he admits that studies such as literature was riddled with impossibilities and does not reflect the truth. Poetry was gifts of nature rather than a branch of study. He took a great liking to mathematics because of the ability to reason. He respected theology but felt that it took divine help to reach heaven. Philosophy still had many debatable issues. The other sciences were practiced by those who were ignorant. After school he spent time travelling and having worthwhile discussions but wasn’t convinced that he learned more than when he was in school. He believes that institutions and principles that have the contributions from many persons are better structures than those from one person. Some nations that have been termed as lesser developed have made better contributions than so called superior nations. In terms of logic he has four precepts. The first is not to accept anything for truth in which there is some element of doubt. The second is to separate each of the difficulties in order to arrive at a solution. The third is to arrange thoughts in order from simple to complex. The fourth is to be meticulous with reviews. He believes that man can solve any problem as long as he stops confusing falsity with truth. He formed a code of morals consisting of four maxims. The first is to respect the theories of others. The second is to hold true to what he believed in. The third is to do his best without thinking about the fortune of his works, and to find the best occupation. “I think, therefore, I am,” is the first principle of his philosophy upon which he will build. God is perfection. His perfection is responsible for the perfection found in other beings. God exists and he as certain of this fact as he is certain of geometrical facts. Man’s ability to reason and to speak is a gift from God. If the skills possessed by animals were from intelligence they would be more intelligent than humans. He feels that his methods will contribute to the betterment of mankind. Contributions to Political Theory Descartes did not write explicitly on political issues but many of his writings influenced moral and political thought. His writings also influenced many of Thomas Hobbes ideas. For example, like Descartes, Hobbes believed that new ideas can be generated by combining old ideas. He points out in the Rule for Direction of the Mind that we should direct our minds to forming true and sound judgments. He also spoke about good sense. This was reiterated in Discourse on the Method where he elaborated on nations that were referred to as so -called barbaric states. His political view was that those states may be better developed or more coordinated than other states. He believed that learning the truth could lead ultimately to happiness. Some of his philosophical and ethical theories have implications of a political nature. Descartes believed that philosophy can be therapeutic and can rid the body of all mental illnesses. He believed that contrary to theological beliefs true happiness is possible with life here on earth. Politics is present in all human interactions. In presenting his concept of philosophy Descartes may have knowingly or unknowingly described methods for achieving political happiness as well. He breaks down philosophy into wisdom and using it in our daily affairs and every other aspect of life. He also stated that he believed that regulating the morality of the people is the responsibility of the sovereign. Descartes also made other political contributions as summarized in his moral code in the Discourse. In the first maxim he said that his duty was to obey the laws and customs of his country. He also was stating that he prefers his actions to be guided by that of his own country. He was advocating for political stability and confirmation of one civil duties and responsibilities and that one should live according to the political and religious customs of one’s country. His second maxim was to be firm in his decisions and to follow even doubtful opinions as firmly as he had been certain. It would be better, however, for one to follow moderate opinions instead of extreme ones. This again shows respect for political and philosophical thought that may be different. He placed God above all political reason in stating that God was the creator and unifier of the universe and of the soul. In the Meditations Descartes spent some time writing on freedom of choice. He describes this freedom as a factor that is evident in the pursuit of happiness. Descartes correspondence to a political figure in the person of Princess Elizabeth signifies his connections with a political authority. He discussed the relationship between physical well being and mental health. He links supreme good with virtue. In one of his letters to Princess Elizabeth he wrote that whenever one lacks certain knowledge as how to act they should rely on the laws of the land. He also wrote that one should take sides and embrace the best opinions. Inherent in his correspondence to her were a prescription for good ethical, moral and political conduct. Aristotelian philosophy was identified with objectivism in philosophy. Descartes changed philosophical as well as political theory by placing epistemology within philosophical thinking. As a rationalist Descartes believed that innate ideas can be independent of sensory experience. This new philosophical theory also contributed to political theory Book Review René Descartes lived and worked in a period that was witnessing a paradigm shift from one way of thinking to another. Conscious of the situations around him Descartes skillfully presented his new ideas but not in a radical manner from the outset. He was very tentative and careful in presenting some his ideas. Of philosophy I will say nothing, except that when I saw that it had been cultivated for many ages by the most distinguished men, and that yet there is not a single matter within its sphere which is not still in dispute, and nothing, therefore, which is above doubt, I did not presume to anticipate that my success would be greater in it than that of others; and further, when I considered the number of conflicting opinions touching a single matter that may be upheld by learned men, while there can be but one true, I reckoned as well-nigh false all that was only probable. (Part IV). Descartes tone from the outset was allowing the reader to be at ease with the text. He reassures readers that he was offering his own personal story and not a recommendation for all to subscribe to. He states that he has no desire for fame, nor fortune and wasn’t even sure if he desires to write the book. This is deliberate in his statements as he sets out in a modest, calm, and controlled personality. In a smart twist he sets out to share a method that he discovered in his youth. His earlier tone allows the reader to pay attention to what he is proposing giving little thought as to whether he is trying to convince the reader or he is being out rightly genuine. He does not set out as guidelines but rather as descriptions of how he does it in his personal life. At the time of Descartes writing Latin was the preferred language of scholars. His decision to write in French rather than in Latin could be seen as an invitation to the common man to understand his point of view and with a further invitation to join him if he can. Descartes, however, upset the calm tone at the beginning to show his rejection of his own education. At the end of his education in what was considered one of the finest schools in Europe he found himself in doubt as the knowledge gained was useless to him. For I found myself involved in so many doubts and errors, that I was convinced I had advanced no farther in all my attempts at learning, than the discovery at every turn of my own ignorance. And yet I was studying in one of the most celebrated schools in Europe, in which I thought there must be learned men, if such were anywhere to be found. (Part I) In this way he states his true desire in his search for truth. He also showed how radical he can become. Although he showed his disapproval for things learnt he was not bitter or angry but it was done in a rather polite manner. He still acknowledged to the positive aspects of some areas of education but at the same time he also highlighted the shortcomings and weaknesses. He admired mathematics but it was in philosophy that he gave an introduction in what was to follow in the book. He is confident that he can bring about change if he looks within himself. He warns that this change may not suit everyone but anyone who thinks rationally may be able to understand him. Again, Descartes is conscious of the environment that he is in and was careful not to radical in such a way as to disturb others. His appeal to the common allowed for the inclusion of everyone regardless of his intellectual background. He is confident that his method will lead to a better understanding as knowledge should lest to truth and truth will eventually lead to happiness. Descartes use simple methods at times to guide the reader. As an introduction to his formulas he points out four laws. He elaborates on each of them. He started at a point that was less debatable in the minds of most persons. His choice of using mathematical theory helped to reinforce his early declaration that he was searching for truth and certainty which was one of the only areas at that time that could stand up to scrutiny. His religious beliefs and thoughts came fully into play in the book. He did not attempt to circumvent but went headlong into this topic. He again identifies mathematics with proof to show that God is truth. He uses the perfection of God to establish the validity of his principle for “that all the things which we clearly and distinctly conceive are true, is certain only because God is or exists and because he is a Perfect Being, and because all that we possess is derived from him.” (Part IV). Descartes shows that the world is dualistic. The human soul is set against the human body. He was presented from publishing his book “Le Monde” during his lifetime. It was published posthumously. He cleverly set out to inform the reader of the treatise. He likened himself to a painter who is unable to represent equally well all the different faces of a solid body on a plain surface. His reference to painting and light in this explanation reveals his thoughts on metaphysics. He also wrote of his wishes to transfer natural science into a form of knowledge whereby people can be helped. He was also proposing that mathematics be used to help in human development. He believed that science should follow mathematical logic rather than being used to call attention to the self. René Descartes concluded his book with a general plea to the readers. He wants his new method to work and he implored others to try. His mention of Aristotle was proof that he had a different and new theory. He was not basking in his own glory but rather gently pushed Aristotelian philosophy and traditional theories aside and invited others to consider what was new. In this respect they are like the ivy which never strives to rise above the tree that sustains it…….Their fashion of philosophizing, however, is well suited to persons whose abilities fall below mediocrity. (Part VI) Descartes was also advocating that knowledge be available to anyone who wishes to study. He was generous in his invitation that anyone who was desirous of seeking truth can be successful if the correct channels were used. Although there were instances in the book where Descartes rambled on, it was nevertheless, appealing in its language and tone. History has shown that it has achieved the desired effect that the writer wanted to accomplish as it this and many of his other published works helped in identifying him to be called the “Father of Modern Philosophy.” http://dir.yahoo.com/Social_Science/Political_Science/Political_Theory/Theorists/ Read More