The Work of Carl Rogers: The Person Centred Approach (PCA) - Essay Example

?The Work of Carl Rogers: The Person Centred Approach (PCA) Criteria The development of person centred therapy is credited to Carl Rogers. Rogers saw that human beings had the capacity to heal their own mental issues with gentle guidance from the therapist. Rogers would find that clients were very responsive to his methods and that much could be accomplished when clients were left to their own devices to heal their mental health issues. Short History of Rogers Rogers was born in a small town on the outskirts of Chicago, Illinois. He was born to parents who were devoutly fundamentalist in their religion. He also grew up with four brothers and a sister. Rogers' parents moved to a farmhouse outside of Chicago and he was expected to take care of chores and go to school. He eventually began college, although an ulcer would interrupt his studies (Nye 1996). Rogers first majored in history and then went into the Union Theological Seminary. He realized that this was not for him because he was pushed to stick to only one idea of religion. He transferred from the seminary to Columbia University's Teachers College where he would major in both clinical and educational psychology (Nye 1996). After receiving his doctorate in 1931, Rogers concentrated on his job working with delinquent children who were referred to his agency through the courts and from other agencies. In 1940, he was a professor at Ohio State University in Ohio and he eventually become involved with the counselling centre at the University of Chicago. His later work was when he became a fellow in La Jolla, California at the Centre for Studies of the Person. He would eventually develop his theory of person centred counselling and would write several books and papers on the subject. Early Influences on Person Centred Approach Prior to Rogers' work, Abraham Maslow was creating the humanistic theory of counselling in which he saw humans as having a natural instinct towards self-actualization. He was instrumental in humanistic theory because he translated these natural instincts to needs that each individual had. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs showed that each person had needs that were created on a hierarchy from basic needs for food and shelter to the needs of self-actualization. As each of these needs was met, the individual was able to move along the hierarchy towards their eventual self-actualization (Tran-Nguyen 1997). Maslow, like Rogers saw the ultimate good in people and the fact that they were always moving toward becoming better people. Both Maslow and Rogers understood tat humans were motivated internally and with guidance form another person, they could fix any problems they had. Rogers' major motivation in relationships was to find meaning, purpose and satisfaction with other human beings (Tudor and Worrall 2006). Freud and Rogers The climate in the early years of Rogers work was created by the psychoanalyst and the behaviourists. As Rogers was developing his work the behaviourists were very strongly involved with how people behaved. was Although Rogers understood Freud's theory, he did not see Freud's reasoning for the Id, Ego and Superego. Through his own experience, Rogers saw that there was more to humans than sexual drive. Rogers felt that Freud's concepts were too intangible to measure and preferred personality testing as more directly related to how humans adjusted to the world. He began to develop his ideas and theories based on his work experience with specific clients. Rogers also disagreed with Freud's idea that man was "wild, unsocialised, selfish and destructive." Instead, he saw humans as "socialized, constructive and trustworthy" (Kirchenbaum, 2007, p. 243) and that this was who they were at the core of their beings. In order to adopt this idea, Rogers had to reject his religious upbringing and his formal training in Freud's work because they both saw man as inherently evil at their core. Gestalt psychology was also a part of Rogers' influence and it was already changing the way that humans were being seen. Gestalt psychology was a movement away from the behaviourists who wanted to believe that man's behaviour was based on instinct rather than on his rational thinking. The behaviourists did not believe in the unconscious as Freud did and they believed that people were more than objects. The Gestalt psychologists believed that the client did not have to do anything in a therapy session except cooperate with the therapist. The humanists believed that the client should be the major focus of a session instead of their behaviour. Rogers would take this information and develop the person centred approach to see the client from a more empathetic viewpoint. Social and Cultural Contexts The social and cultural climate during the early years of Rogers' work was based on white, upper class males. Females were not allowed to practice in psychology at the time. Rogers looked into this social context and believed that the environment that a person lived within created a social context that could create challenges for them in life. This cultural context must be taken into consideration when working in counselling sessions. Corsini, Wedding, and Dumont (2008) state that the problems, disorders or diagnoses that people have are generated because of social and political issues. Since there was an emphasis on psychoanalysis and behaviourism in these early years, the test of the political and social climate could be seen. Most psychologists were white men and their patients were also white. Basic Philosophy and Outline of PCA Rogers worked with six concepts that he called the core conditions. He believed that the therapist must model these six core conditions and help the client embrace them (Ransom 2003). The core conditions would allow the client and counsellor have the most positive experience as they moved through therapy. These six core conditions were: 1) that the client and therapist would make a difference in the outside field (called the phenomenological filed) of each other, 2) that the client comes to counselling in a state of incongruence so they are feeling anxious when they start. 3) The counsellor must be in a state of congruence as they relate to the client. 4) The counsellor's job is to provide unconditional positive regard for the client, 5) they must also show empathy to the client's situation and 6) the client has to perceive that what the therapist is doing is working. When these six conditions are met, the client will see change. Three of these areas would be most important: unconditional positive regard, congruence vs. incongruence and empathy (Nye 1996; Rogers, 1961). Unconditional positive regard was important because all humans came to therapy with their own positive regard damaged because they were always looking towards being what others thought they should be. Rogers said that all humans would strive for acceptance and want to be loved by others. Because of this need, they would first seek to please others. Some people would be open and nurturing, while others would be closed and distant. Humans begin to ignore their own good feelings and claim the values that come to them from other people (Nye 1996). This action will compromise their own self-regard. In order for the counsellor to assist, they must practice unconditional positive regard with the client during their sessions to show the client that they are worthy of developing their own regard. Congruence refers to a state of harmony and incongruence refers to a state of disharmony. Rogers saw that clients struggled with becoming congruent and developing their own self-concepts. Clients usually moved from a state of incongruence between their inner being and the new self-concept that was developing in sessions. The counsellor is there to help the client move to a more congruent state with themselves. The concept of organismic experience was important in this situation because it is the aspect of the individual that Freud saw as the unconscious. Rogers saw that the individual's "immediate conscious experiences" (Nye 1997 p. 87) determined their reality. Rogers also felt that the counsellor must always be congruent in their own feelings and attitudes in order to help the client (Kirchenbaum 2007). The counsellor must also practice acceptance and empathy in the counselling session to allow the client to speak freely. Rogers believed also that every human being was moving towards self-actualization. This meant that they were always striving for enhancement of their inner beings, or a movement towards bettering their circumstances. He saw people as a whole unit of functioning instead of separate parts so the organismic valuing process was part of the whole person. The valuing process began at birth, did well during childhood, but often changed to a devaluing process as the child became an adult. The person centred approach would bring the individual back to valuing themselves and understanding what they wanted out of life. Criteria 2: The 19 Propositions Proposition 1: Rogers believed that each person or organism existed in a world that was constantly changing and he saw them as the centre of this world. As I understand this, each individual has and environment in which they live that provides an opportunity for them to observe how they live within this environment. I believe this is true. There are many popular books that talk about the movement of this world. As I grow older and have more wisdom, I make better decision than when I was younger. I believe that Rogers was attempting to help people live fuller lives. Proposition 2: Rogers saw humans as organisms and the filed of experience they were in as the phenomenal field. In this proposition, he states that the organism reacts to the phenomenal field of experience and develops perceptions about his experience through this field. According to Patterson (2000) in order for an individual to change, they must first change their perception of what goes on in their world. I see this as true. In any situation I have been in within my own life, I had to change my perception to reach a goal. As an example, when I first began higher education, every class seemed very difficult. As I went through each class, I gained more confidence and some classes and concepts were easier. Proposition 3: Rogers says the organism reacts to the phenomenal field as a whole unit. This is very true. Each person reacts to their life on different levels but they do so in one unit. As an individual develops their personality, Rogers (1967) realized that they would move away from being an individual controlled by external forces and begin to see themselves differently. This says to me that the individual is monitoring themselves more clearly to make choices based on who they are instead of what people want them to be. In other words, they develop their own values instead of accepting only what they have been taught. Proposition 4: The evolving individual will understand that their environment is different than who they are, which can begin the process of healing. Many people seem to not be in touch with who they are or what they want out of life. Often there is a traumatic situation that makes a person look more closely at their own life and decide to make changes. This type of situation would create a need to develop the self separately from the environment. Proposition 5: The individual further understand the difference between "I" and "me" in terms of their environment. They also begin to concentrate more on how they want to see the world instead of how they used to see it (the old reality is changing). As the individual does this, they begin to be more in touch with their actualizing tendency and are able to direct and control their experience in therapy (Patterson 1990). By this time, the individual understands more about their relationship to the world around them. Proposition 6 and 7: These two propositions speak to the organism's need to survive. They are motivated to move towards actualization and then to maintain it and enhance their own experience. As they understand this fact, they move into proposition seven, whether they now are developing the internal framework to understand their own behaviour. In other words, the individual understands more about themselves, their desires, and their options for a better life. Proposition 8: The organism (individual) is working towards satisfying their needs from the standpoint of their own experience and their new perceptions of the world around them. By this time, they are beginning to change their perceptions to a more positive reality and they are moving towards a fully functioning human being, as they begin to be open to new experiences. Kirshenbaum (2009) states that Rogers saw clients as beings who could take in a lot of information form their environment and synthesize it into their own experience. Proposition 9: Rogers understood that emotion was able to move people to adopt certain behaviours and accomplish their goals. Emotions were not necessarily delved into unless the emotion was relevant to what was going on in the moment (Purton 2004). Change comes from a realization that a certain emotion is present and why it is present. Proposition 10: Values are a product of what an organism has developed, often from what other people have taught them. Rogers called these values, "introjected values" (Nye 1996). During this process, people began to develop their organismic valuing process again, which was important for them to do as they move towards actualization. Proposition 11: The individual now sees the world in relation to their self. If an experience has relevance to them, they symbolise the experience and bring it into their perception in some way. When something is not relevant, they ignore the information or may distort the symbolisation if it is inconsistent with their understanding of self. This proposition speaks to congruence and suggests that those situations that are congruent with the individual's current understanding of self will be adopted by them. However, if the experience is incongruent, the individual will not attach any symbolism to it (Tudor and Worrall 2006). Proposition 12: Any behaviour that the individual chooses will be congruent with their concept of self. This says to me that each individual builds upon their values as they move towards self-actualisation. Proposition 13: There may be other behaviours that the organism adapts because of organic experiences or needs and these may not have been symbolised. This may mean that the behaviour is not incorporated into their experiences because it is inconsistent with who they have become. Rogers saw the individual as always moving towards greatness. Proposition 14: Psychological adjustment happens when an individual is able to choose a concept of self that includes their experiences that are both intrinsic and extrinsic. In other words, Rogers was stating that each person was the sum of their experiences. This means that their behaviours and experiences would come together to form the self. Proposition 15: Psychological maladjustment occurs for the individual when they are not able to become aware of their experiences in their current context. In other words, the client that is in denial of their sensations or intuitive experiences during the therapeutic process will have psychological tension and will not find peace. Proposition 16: there are many experiences that will be inconsistent with the individual's idea of self. When this happens the experience becomes a threat to the individual. At this point, there may be perceptions form these experiences that go against the individual's idea of self, which may make them reject the experience in order to maintain their sense of self. In relating this proposition, I thought about people who are against gay marriage because of their religion. They cannot bend or understand the situation because the concept is so inconsistent with their belief. Proposition 17: Rogers felt that there were certain conditions that the individual perceived as non-threatening to the individual's sense of self and these would be examined by the individual. These were experiences that the individual may use to change the structure of themselves or choose to incorporate the new experience into their self structure. I think he meant that people eventually have a larger understanding of the world and are able to be more open to new experiences. Proposition 18: The healthy individual is able to perceive and accept a variety of experiences and make sense of them. They are able to look at the world differently. Their understanding also helps them relate to other people and accept them as separate individuals. To me, this describes a person who is totally balanced and who knows who they are in relation to the world and to others. They have come to terms with themselves and are living a more fulfilling life. Proposition 19: By the time the individual moves to the last proposition, they are in the process of change. Their value system, their self structure and their personality has changed a great deal. They no longer accept values from others unless they fit within their new structure. They are developing their own values form clear perceptions from their own experiences. Analysis of the Propositions The propositions for me are one idea of how personality develops. Rogers seemed to be very structured about the person centred approach and created many step-by-step ways for counsellors to understand what he was talking about. I can see that in every situation, we are always evolving if we are mentally healthy people. As an example, we have friends who match our values and ideas. When we encounter someone with different ideas, we will either reject their ideas or embrace them, depending on whether they are congruent with what we think. What we do with the information will depend on where we are in moving through the propositions. I can understand the propositions more clearly when I look at my own life. In my younger years, I was attempting to do what my parents taught me and to accept their values. I was living at home and felt that I was supposed to listen to them. As I grew older, I realised there were some values that my parents had that came from their generation but that no longer fit for me. I knew at that time that I had to become more open in my thinking to the world around me. I was basically having new experiences that would begin to shape my personality. Criticisms of PCA Many critics believed that Rogers' theory was too individually oriented so it could not be used for groups. Also, the process of moving towards ones self encouraged an individual to be selfish (Kirschenbaum 2009). In examining this criticism, I feel that the critics are correct, but this does not mean that the theory has no merit. The individual must come to terms with themselves in the therapeutic process in order for them to see permanent change; change is always a personal and individual process. Another issue is that PCA is used mostly with white American males which meant that it was not suitable for other cultures. As an example, Kirschenbaum (2009) stated that PCA may not be suitable for matriarchal or authoritarian cultures because it may clash with the individual's values. MacDougall (2002) stated that the counsellor must become culturally competent when using PCA with other cultures and they may need to talk to individuals about how they perceive the counselling relationship with someone who has a different culture than their own. The conversation may help the counsellor and the client create a better environment for healing to take place. Also, behaviour must bee seen in a cultural context because it will affect an individual's perception of themselves and their world view. Other critics said that Rogers did not pay attention to unconscious processes. Bohart and Byock (2005) studied client relationships with PCS and found that clients were responsive to the process and felt very well taken care of during the course of the sessions. To me this means that the unconscious processes may not be important to PCA in the sense that the critiques think. I believe that the competent counsellor will adopt various theories to meet the needs of their clients. Also, Moon (2007) stated that in Rogers' interaction with his clients, he was able to help them with their own self-discovery. He showed them unconditional positive regard, congruence and empathetic understanding, which seemed more important than worrying about eh unconscious processes. As a counsellor, it is important to have an in-depth understanding of a therapeutic model when working as a reflective practitioner because it sets a foundation for the practitioner to follow. A therapeutic model also provides an opportunity for practitioners to test theories and to adapt them to their specific needs. Criteria 3: Similarities and Differences Psychodynamic Counselling and Cognitive Behavioural Counselling The psychodynamic model looks at clients in a similar way that PCA sees them. As an example, psychodynamic counselling emphasizes the relationship between the client and the therapist (Purton, 2004). Where Rogers believed that the conditions of positive regard, congruence/genuineness and empathy should originate with the counsellor, the psychodynamic counsellor is open to the opportunity to converse with the client to get to the bottom of what is troubling them (Farber 2007). Also, Owen (1999) stated that both types of counselling would use a system of stages from the beginning of the process and the counsellors in each type of counselling would understand that to be reflective counsellors they must be able to use therapeutic processes. Both models will work with a therapeutic relationship between the counsellor and the client, but they pay attention differently to clients. As an example, psychodynamic counsellors would spend more time talking with clients and helping them understand their situation. PCA would allow the client to do most of the talking. Also, psychodynamic counsellors are more in favour of having the client and the counsellor have a specific role. In this process, they may go "too deep" in the beginning with the client (Owen 1999). Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) is very much like PCA, but it works with clients differently. Many times CBT counsellors will provide homework for the client so they will have something more to do in the next session. Buckley (2007) suggests that CBT will often be more nurturing than PCA because it is constantly working with the client to help them do their own work. CBT will also work with the unconscious in a way because it helps the client understand their own insights as a result of using CBT techniques. Both CBT and PCA work towards helping the client accept themselves which is a very necessary step in the therapeutic process. Leahy (1996) suggested that the structure of how people processed their information versus how they worked with the information they found was a basic difference between CBT and PCA. As an example, PCA worked with whatever the client brought to the table, while CBT had specific structured areas that they were limited to go into each session. References Bohart, A.C. and Byock, G. (2005). Experiencing Carl Rogers from the client's point of view: A vicarious ethnographic investigation. Humanistic Psychologist, 33 (3) 187-211. doi: 10.1207/s15473333thp3303-2 Borden, W. (2008). Orienting perspectives in contemporary psychodynamic thought. Infant and Child Development, 17. 223-248. doi: 10.1002/icd Buckley, J.C. (2007). Completing -- not competing. Therapy Today. 18 (10). 31-34. Available from Academic Search Premier database [AN: 2036444] [Accessed 9 March 2011] Corsini, R.J., Wedding, D. and Dumont, F. (2008). Current psychotherapies. CA: Thomson, Brooks/Cole. Farber, B.A. (2007). On the enduring and substantial influence of Carl Rogers' not quite necessary nor sufficient conditions. Psychotherapy, Research, Practice, Training. 44 (3) 289-294. doi: 10.1037/0033-3204.44.3.289 Kirschenbaum, H. (2007). The life and work of Carl Rogers. VA: American Counselling Association. Kirschenbaum, H. and Jourdan, A. (2005). The current status of Carl Rogers and the person-centred approach. Psychotherapy, Theory, Research, Practice, Training. 42 (1) 37-51. doi: 1037/0033-3204/42/1/37 Leahy, R.L. (1996). Cognitive behavioural therapy: Basic principles and applications. Chapter 2: Historical context of cognitive therapy. Available from http://cognitivetherapynyc.com/docs/basicprinciples.pdf [Accessed 2 March 2011] Leichsenring, F., Hiller, W., Weissberg, M. and Leibing, E. (2006). Cognitive behavioural therapy and psychodynamic psychotherapy: Techniques, efficacy, and indications. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 60 (3). Available from http://kinische-psychologic-mainz.de/abt [Accessed 28 February 2011] Lucas, S. (2011). The 19 propositions of Carl Rogers. Counselling Central. Available from http://counsellingcentral.com/the-nineteen-propositions-of-carl-rogers/ [Accessed 2 March 2011] Moon, K.A. (2007). A client centred review of Rogers with Gloria. Journal of Counselling and Development, 85 (3) 277-285. Retrieved February 28, 2011 from psycINFO database (AN: 2007-09927-003 Nye, R. D. (1996). Three psychologies: Perspectives from Freud, Skinner and Rogers. NY: Brooks/Cole Owen, I. R. (1999). Exploring the similarities and differences between person-centred and psychodynamic therapy. Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 27 (2) 165. Available from Academic Search Premier database [Accessed 2 March 2011] Patterson, C.H. (1990). On being client centred. Person Centred Review. 5 428-432. Available from http://www.sageofasheville.com/pub_downloads/ ON_BEING_CLIENT-CENTERED.pdf [Accessed 2 March 2011] Patterson, C.H. (2000). Understanding psychotherapy: Fifty years of client-centred theory and practice. UK: PCCS Books. Purton, C. (2004). Person-centred therapy: The focusing oriented approach. NY: Palgrave. Ransom, D. (2003). Theoretical framework. Available from http://www.counsellingpsychologist.com/theoretical.htm [Accessed 3 March 2011] Rogers, C. and Freiberg, H.J. (1994). Freedom to learn. NJ: Prentice Hall. Rogers, C. (1961). On becoming a person: A therapist's view of psychotherapy. NY: Houghton Mifflin. Rogers, C. and Stevens, B. (1967). Person to person: The problem of being human, a new trend in psychology. CA: Lafayette. Tran-Nguyen, L. (1997). Humanistic perspective. Mesa Community College Psychology Department. Accessed from http://www.mesacc.edu/dept/d46/ psy/dev/Fall98/Theories/humanistic.html [Accessed 3 March 2011] Tutor, K. and Worrall, M. (2006). Person-centred therapy: A clinical philosophy. NY: Routledge. Wachtel, P.L. (2007). Carl Rogers and the larger context of therapeutic thought. Psychotherapy, Research, Practice, Training. 44 (3). 279-284. doi:10.1037/0033-3204.44.3.279 Read More