Influence of Stereotypes, Prejudices and Discrimination - Research Paper Example

? Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination: The Hindrances to Achieving Lasting Peace, Freedom, and Harmony for Mankind. Abstract Each of us, in one way or another has been affected by stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. Why do these hurtful and offensive practices still exist? Why did these practices started in the first place? The effects of stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination do not only affect the target and the abuser but the whole community as well. For the human race to achieve lasting peace, freedom and harmony, these three must be minimalized or better yet be ended once and for all, and that effort takes our collective strengths and principles. Keywords: Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination: The Hindrances to Achieving Lasting Peace, Freedom, and Harmony for Mankind. Each one of us has been affected or has seen the results of stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination in society. Some might have been bullied when they were little because they are of colour. Some might have been offended by other’s disregard for their cultural or religious beliefs. Others may have been denied a job, or even a right because of gender orientation, age, religion, sex, social class, or race. Like it or not, we are now living in a world where geographical boundaries do not limit our interaction. Many if not all countries are like the United States – a melting pot of colours, beliefs and cultures that try to co-exists despite the differences and biases that they have for themselves and for one another. Many non-white Americans think that only whites are racists but in reality, being biased, prejudice, and discriminatory to individuals or groups is universal and defies age, gender, social class, colour, culture, faith and sex. Everyone has been affected at one time or another of these stereotyping but in reality, what have we really done to stop this ludicrous behaviour and mind-set? How can something so awful and hurting still exists in our society when everyone does not like being discriminated against? I. What are Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination? The term “Stereotype” in its origin is very innocent. I was coined from a printing process that specializes on making imprints or reproductions of a page or script and was coined by Didot, a French printer in 1798 (Ashmore and DelBoca, 1981 as cited by Plous 2002). Then Walter Lippmann in 1922 used the term to mean a mental sketch, a generalization or more often an overgeneralization of the characteristics of a group or an individual. The negative potential of stereotyping is captured by the definition given by Fiske in 2010 (As cited by Keene, 2011) “…the application of an individual’s own thoughts, beliefs, and expectations onto other individuals without first obtaining factual knowledge about the individual(s).” Stereotypes can pertain to both good and bad traits but often times, those that stick into the psyche are the negative stereotypes (i.e. women are the weaker sex, blondes are dumb etc.) rather than positive stereotypes (i.e. Asians are good at math, mothers are nurturing, etc.). Casting stereotypes are very dangerous for stereotyping oftentimes become the avenue for the development and practice of discrimination and prejudice (Keene, 2011). Where ever and whenever a stereotype is cast, prejudice and discrimination usually follow. Prejudice is not merely a statement of opinion but an attitude of dissent, disrespect, and detestation towards a group or an individual. (Plous, 2002)According to Sabrina Keene’s article in the Journal of Law Enforcement (2011): “We can say that an individual behaves in a prejudicial manner when he or she reacts emotionally to another individual or group based on some preconceived notions about that individual or group. For example, when a white person doesn’t want to drink in a water fountain previously used by a black person sole because of some biased ideas the white person has based on the black person’s race, the white person is regarded as to have acted in a prejudice manner towards the black person.” A prejudiced attitude can be developed and reinforced by multiple occurrence of a similar experience (Keene, 2011).We can take that this is why Filipinas got the stereotype of being domestic helpers in Hong Kong because there are a lot of Filipinas who happen to work as domestic helpers in Hong Kong. Another example is the tag that HIV positive persons (people living with HIV) are sexually immoral, even though there are a lot of other ways to get HIV aside from sexual contact resulting from promiscuity. With stereotypes giving rise to a prejudice attitude, it is but a matter of time before the person acts upon his or her prejudice and start to discriminate. Discrimination is the denial of rights in the basis of stereotypes and prejudice. And it is different from stereotypes and prejudice because it is an application of beliefs, not merely a belief (Fiske, 2010 as cited by Keene, 2011). An example of discrimination is that Latin-Americans get rejected more often in applying for a car loan in banks or lending offices compared to a white person of the same job and income status (Pager and Shepherd, 2008). Discrimination comes in all forms, from blatant to discrete. Thankfully, nowadays blatant discrimination against religious belief, race, sex, gender orientation, age and social status is not practiced that often though there are still cases where violence resulting to death has been done because of discrimination and prejudice. II. Factors that contribute to Prejudice and Discrimination. There are many causes that promote the formation of negative stereotypes that goes on to become prejudices and ultimately becomes acts of discrimination. According to Plous (2002), we develop stereotypes with the influence of Media, Personal or direct experience, and even family. However, there are certain facets of how we think that may make us more susceptible to having prejudices and discriminate between our fellow: 1. Authoritarian personality – this theory was coined and promoted by Theodor Adorno and his colleagues in 1950. Authoritarians, they say, have the most propensities to carry prejudices against low-status groups. People with authoritarian personalities are characterized as “…thinkers who obeyed authority, saw the world as black and white, and enforced strict adherence to social rules and hierarchies” (Plous, 2002). Their strict, “no grey area” view of the world makes them see themselves as occupying a higher rank in society and their discriminate others because they see that other people are of weak constitution making them occupy a rank lower than the authoritarians. This theory was later criticized by other Sociologists and they saw that the theory lacks proper evidence-based support but Adorno was not entirely wrong. “Right-wing Authoritarianism” (politically motivated from of prejudice) and “Social dominance orientation” (people who want their own group to be and remain more superior to other groups) are the likely cause of political discrimination in South Africa, Russia, Canada and the US; and anti-Black and anti-Arab, prejudice, sexism, nationalism, dissent on gay rights, and other attitudes based on a perceived social hierarchy respectively (Plous, 2002). 2. Categorical thinking - we humans process information through the aid of categories, and this normal human functioning According to Gordon Allport in 1954 (Plous, 2002) is the root of stereotyping and prejudice. In nature, there are no distinct categories that do not overlap; there are always intermediates and objects or people that do not conform to the norm. The labels that we give them so as to make these intermediates seem easier for us to understand are the start of prejudice and stereotyping. The thing that turns categorical thinking into stereotyping and prejudice is when we try to construct distinct boundaries between each category and start favouring one over the other. 3. Assimilation and Contrast – one of the results of categorical thinking is to lessen the differences between categories (“assimilate”) or amplify the difference between categories (“contrast”). These distort our perception of reality to the point wherein we see a great difference where none or not much really exists and group together people, places, or objects that differ immensely with each other just because of one similarity (Plous, 2002) 4. Out-group Homogeneity – this concept stems from assimilation and contrast. When an individual belongs to a group, all others aside from their group are seen as homogenous or bearing similar characteristics. This perception may stem from the need of individuals to belong and in order to belong; one must contribute something different or unique to the group. This makes the group tightly knit and makes it hard for people in the out group to penetrate, and thus this is also a form of prejudice – for essentially, the thing that is being practiced is exclusion and exclusivity. Stereotypes are learned from a young age and these concepts, once inculcated, are highly resistant to change. In a study cited by Scott Plous (2002) Jewish children that are about 2 and a half years of age already know about discrimination against Muslims. Another example is racism. When slavery was just abolished in the United States, many white adults were unable to treat blacks as equals for a long time because they have been born and raised with the message that blacks are below them, that black people are slaves because they previously owned black slaves, and that attitude was further reinforced by their families who were also brought up with the thinking that the blacks are only property and not worth to be seen as equals. Today, these racist views and practices are not as rampant but there are still subtle hints that discrimination against race is still alive in the number of white collar jobs available for people of colour, the relative ease of whites to get good housing and automotive deals compared to people of colour, and the Racial Profiling that is still codified in the official guidelines of the FBI against Latin-Americans, and Muslims in America (Pager and Shepherd, 2008; ACLU). Prejudice and discrimination aside from being learned can also result from the formation of in-group bias, Social identity, and self-esteem. The concept that discrimination is due to one group hating the other is not the case in reality rather, feelings of trust, concern, and benevolence are only associated and reserved for the group that a person associates his or herself. This can be exemplified with the attitude of a new comer to a high school. The group that first accepts the new comer will be the group that the new comer will side with and he or she will develop the same attitude as that of the group he or she is in with regards to the rest of the crowd inside the school. Social identity can influence the making of prejudices because of the “going with the crowd” and the “need-to-fit-in” attitude. If a person says that he or she is part of a certain group, he or she will inevitably imbibe the characteristics of the group, even the kinds of people they would associate with so as not to be a disappointment and an outlier with regards to the group. Prejudice and discrimination can also be tied with the flux of self-esteem. The propensity of people with low self-esteem to be prejudice is high where as people with high self-esteems and self-worth have loser tendencies to exercise prejudice and discriminate (Plous, 2002). III. Effects of Stereotypes, Prejudices, and Discrimination We now realize that bias can take different forms, from thoughts and ideas, the negative stereotypes manifest itself through attitudes of prejudice and acts of discrimination. Often times, we do these acts unconsciously like when we blurt out racist comments from time to time, or make sexists jokes to our co-workers or friends, but have we ever tried to stop and take a look at the effects these biases do on us and to our fellow? Stereotypes can influence greatly the perception and behaviour of persons subjected to them. In certain priming experiments – where in test subjects are shown images the depict stereotype often perform according to the stereotype that they viewed; students who were shown pictures of old aged people solved problems slowly and more carefully, when shown pictures of football hooligans, they performed in the same test poorly, but when shown pictures of professors, their scores improved significantly. This trend suggests that when stereotypic representations of behaviour are activated, corresponding behaviour is also activated (Wheeler and Petty, 2001 as cited by Plous, 2002). This reinstates the power of suggestion and people conforming to how other people view them or expects from them. Prejudice and discrimination when viewed from the target’s perspective influences the target’s interpersonal and inter-group relationship. The target of these offences can respond either by running away and dissociating him/herself from the discriminated group, by standing and fighting for the group’s rights as with his, or endure the discrimination silently. Groups that target and the groups that they target often develop preconceived notions that put them in a predicament that will more likely result to conflict. For example, in an area where there are Christians and Muslims alike, the general attitude of both groups towards each other is somehow like this, “we like them, but they certainly don’t like us.” That’s how both the groups feel. And they just try to avoid each other and misinterpret each other’s actions because of this mentality. Another effect that should be taken into account is the cost that stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination exact on the target’s mental and physical wellbeing. In a certain experiment by Williams, Yu, Jackson and Anderson (1997), they’ve discovered that blacks who were subjected to discrimination at work reported higher number of absences, lower sense of psychological well-being, and more cases of self-reported ill health than their white counterparts. (as cited by Plous, 2002) Another study found a correlation between an increase in blood pressure when black workers are exposed to threats of stereotyping or when they are subjected to situations of racial discrimination (Blascovich, et. al., 2001 and Armstead, et al., 1989 as cited by Plous, 2002). In as much as the target is affected physically and mentally with stereotyping, prejudice and discrimination, the person or group that targets also suffer because of their behaviour. They are more likely to be misinterpreted when they would like to express their change of heart. They are labelled negatively as racists and even though they want to change, since society has known them to be prejudice, the society moulds them to remain prejudice and discriminative. Also, when they do not let go of the hurtful feelings that they carry for their targets, they will not get any peace and they will be full of regret and they are also limited to what they can accomplish and experience because of avoiding the people that they discriminate or are the subject of their prejudice. These stresses can cause a lot of problems in both their psychological and physical health. IV. Abolishing stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination The question that begs asking is this: Will humanity ever overcome the problem of racism, gender discrimination, stereotyping and hostility towards homosexuals? Well, the answers is yes, but it will take the conscious effort of all sectors and it will take years and generations to undo all the hurt and damage that have been dealt with due to the biases that we have been applying, consciously and unconsciously for years. There have been a lot of triumphs against companies that have practiced racial discrimination and other types of biases in choosing prospective employees and dealing with present employees. Texaco and Coca-cola have paid a lot of money as compensation for the employees that they have mistreated. (Wade, 2002) But the war is far from over. Stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination is still practiced in many companies and societal groups though it is not as grave and upfront as before. If the abused keep on fighting and the discriminators keep on listening and become accountable for their actions, then it will be a good step in abolishing stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. Since stereotypes are learned starting from when children are very young and is built up as we grow older, then using cognitive tools and being more sensitive with our words and behaviour especially towards children will be the solution to abolishing stereotypes. Studies have shown that though stereotypes are hard to erase from our system once they are learned, it can be reduced and our perception of others can be made more accurate when we are motivated to do so (Fiske, 2000; Neuberg, 1989; Sinclair & Kunda, 1999 as cited in Plous, 2002). The traits that we need to develop to overcome labelling and creating stereotypes is empathy and a change in orientation. Empathy is walking in the other person’s shoes or trying to see the world through their eyes. This takes the focus from “me” to “you” and “others” with the hope of being united as “we”. Going down to the target’s level is a humbling experience and will give us insight on why these people do what they do and will give us a great sense of respect for them. Empathy coupled with respect and one’s own will to change will propel us to do the right thing and not place people in stereotypes of discriminate against others. A change in orientation is changing the state of what you know and making it fluid and more open to different interpretations. When a group of students were given a talk that intelligence is not fixed and is not determined by someone’s race, gender or age, they performed better in their exams (Plous, 2002). Our view of the world and society was dictated to us from whence we were young. When we change our orientation, we see the world in a different light and we start to see things clearer. A change in orientation may be a move from being highly objective to thinking less objectively, or from classifying things according to cost and liabilities, maybe we can try to see them as the intrinsic objects and living things that they are. Give your ideals room for expansion and don’t be afraid of adapting these suggestions while not compromising your value system. The society in which we life in also has to change. Provisions that allow for racial profiling in our keeping state security should be abolished. (ACLU) Everyone has the capability to become a terrorist or become a saint – it is not a matter of race, gender, or social status. What we need to do is to encourage and build an environment conducive to making people do better for others and strive to be the best version of themselves. Let us forget about the boundaries of master and slave, boss and employees, but let us instead exercise mutual respect and dependence – acknowledging that we can really do nothing on our own. In this day and age, we are really too focused on our own ego and we usually forget that others also have dreams that can be crushed and feelings that can get hurt. And for the victims of discrimination, may this be a wakeup call to stand up for your rights. Speak out if injustice is done to you. Don’t let anyone try to control you by means of protection, or gifts, or the promise of “family”. You don’t have to suffer anymore. You are a person, just like everyone else that has rights and responsibilities. If you don’t want to be a victim, become a champion and rise up from the slump that you are in. Do what you can to contribute for the betterment of society and though you have been slighted, you should not retaliate. Instead, spread the love and keep the haters bewildered. It is our right to express ourselves in whatever way we want as long as it does not harm another. And yes, even in this situation, mutual respect and reliance upon others is the key. V. Final Thoughts I have a theory why hearing problems are more common in the elderly of America than the elderly of china. Although stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination is universal, it is much more expressed here in the US compared to Asian countries like China and Japan. From whence we were young, we have accustomed ourselves not to be sensitive listeners so that we will be somewhat oblivious to the verbal attacks of discrimination and prejudice given us. Maybe, we just got so used to not listening that’s why when we grow old, our hearing is lost already. In China, there is an overwhelming regard for respect for the elderly. Confucianism abhors the abandonment of parents in their old age instead; it promotes giving the elder a position of respect because of their wisdom (Dalby, 2007). That’s why even though stereotyping, prejudice and discrimination do exist in China, the Chinese are compelled by their culture to just keep it to themselves out of respect for the other person especially the elderly, and thus there is no need for them to lose their hearing as they grow old. Humankind has long been in pursuit of peace, freedom and harmony. But how can there be lasting peace if we harbour ill intent and prejudice towards others that are of different sex, gender orientation, religion, race, age or social background from us? How can there be real freedom if we curtail the potentials of people through the imposition of stereotypes? How can there be harmony if we distrust the actions of our fellow because they previously discriminated against us? These biases will take our human race nowhere se we better take off our biases and be more sensitive and accepting to the uniqueness of individuals and groups. Maybe then, we’ll have lasting peace, true freedom and complete harmony among the human race. References ACLU (American Civil Liberties Union). The three faces of racial profiling. Defending targets of discrimination blog. http://www.aclu.org/racial-justice/racial-profiling (Retrieved on 14 April 2013) Dalby, C. (2007). How China respects its Elders. Spiked. Signet House, 49-51 Farringdon Road, London, EC1M 3JP. http://www.spiked-online.com/site/article/3605/ (Retrieved on 1 May 2013) Keene, S. (2011). Social Bias: Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination. Journal of Law Enforcement, Vol.1 No. 3 www.jghcs.info (Retrieved on 14 April 2013). Pager, D. and Shepherd H. (2008). The Sociology of Discrimination: Racial Discrimination in Employment, Housing, Credit, and Consumer Markets. Annu Rev Sociol. January 1; 34: 181-209. Plous, S. (2002).The Psychology of Prejudice, Stereotyping and Discrimination: An Overview. Wesleyan University. http//:www.UnderstandingPrejudice.org (Retrieved on 14 April 2013). Wade, C. L. (2002). Race and Empathy in Corporate Governance Processes. Exerp from as Corporate Social Responsibility: Empathy And Race Discrimination , 76Tulane Law Review. pp.1461-1482, 1469-1480 (Retrieved on 1 May 2013) Read More