Compare and contrast Piagets and Festingers cognitive theories of motivation - Essay Example

?Psychology: Mid-term Exams Compare and contrast Piaget’s and Festinger’s cognitive theories of motivation. Be sure to discuss the strengths and weaknesses of each theory. Of the two, which would you find most helpful in application to the workplace? Why? Piaget and Festinger both discuss considerations for the cognitive theories of motivation with Piaget’s theories being based on cognitive development and Festinger’s theories based on cognitive dissonance. Piaget declares that equilibrium, assimilation, and accommodation support motivational concepts. He also believes that children have an innate desire to protect their sense of organization within their conception of their world (Biehler and Snowman, 1997). In order to maintain a child’s sense of equilibrium, he has to relate a new experience to what is already familiar to him. Their motivation to learn new things would be based on their desire to fit in their new environment (Biehler and Snowman, 1997). In mastering their new world, they would often learn a song by repeating it, or learn a story by repeatedly reading it. Among older children, they would often collect and organize everything they can touch and adolescents would often argue repeatedly with adults in order to master the environment which they cannot seem to control (Biehler and Snowman, 1997). The motivation in this case for individuals is to bring order to the chaos and to establish a semblance of control over their general environment. In a similar vein, Festinger’s theory of motivation is also based on the disequilibrium. In this case, where there is conflict of dissonance, people are often motivated to bring order in such dissonance and to resolve such conflicts (Huitt, 2011). Festinger believes that with the right amount of disequilibrium, people would be motivated to implement changes in their life and in their behavior (Huitt, 2011). Piaget has already experienced a well-trusted and reliable theory on motivation, one which has been used by teachers and other educators in their interactions with their students (Kail and Cavanaugh, 2012). Moreover, Piaget has also stimulated much research on cognitive motivation and development and these studies have all acknowledged that children actively seek to understand the world around them. And these changes have motivated cognitive development. Piaget is however vague in terms of the processes of change (Kail and Cavanaugh, 2012). His theory also does not make adjustments for differences among children. On the other hand, Festinger’s advantage in his theory is that it can consider two cognitions at one time (Benoit, n.d). It also acknowledges the fact that other cognitions or motivations can impact on a person’s actions, and these actions can be influenced by the proportion of dissonance and the importance of cognition (Benoit, n.d). This theory however has also its weaknesses. Jean (1999) discusses how Festinger’s theory is untestable. It also fails in its myriad complications in terms of its discussion on dissonance and motivation. In the workplace, I would find Piaget’s theory to be more applicable. It is more adaptable and simplified as compared to Festinger’s theory. Piaget’s emphasis on the maintenance of equilibrium can be used in order to create scenarios where people would instinctively seek to establish order and to protect their sense of organization. The adjustment to be made in this case would be on the worker and his desire to master new environments and to make new environments and experiences familiar to him through repetitions and hands-on experience. 2. Compare the three major components to motivation: the biological component, the learned component, and the cognitive component. Develop an example that illustrates motivation from each of these components. The biological element of motivation declares that human behavior is innate. Animals have been known to manifest instinctual behaviors and among humans, such instinctual behaviors have also been seen (Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1989). Meyer-Lindenberg, et.al., (2005) also discuss that human social motivation is based on genetic tendencies which are controlled by the amygdala-orbitofrontal cortex. Where these genes are absent, hypersociability can sometimes be seen, as is apparent in the Williams-Beuren syndrome (Meyer-Lindenberg, et.al., 2005). Studies also indicate that there seems to be a biological foundation for feelings of trust founded on the production of oxytocin (Kosfeld, et.al., 2005). Although the biological theory has not been a popular theory in explaining human behavior and motivation, there seems to be an acknowledgment of the fact that genes have a predisposing quality on individuals and their behavior. One example of the genetic predisposition can be seen in the quality of shyness which has been considered by scientists as a genetic trait (Petri, 1997). This quality is also based on how a person reacts to the situation where his innate qualities would likely overcome the overall reaction to the environment stimulant. Where the biological component focuses on the genes and innate qualities of an individual, the learned component focuses on the outside – the environment. Learned motivation usually cannot be manifested unless there is an outside motivation (Lieberman, 2004). It is also based on learned responses and previous outcomes from other situations. Unlike biological motivation which is based on innate qualities, the cues of the learned component come from outside sources or from the influence of the environment. This learned motivation can be seen in the situation where customers believe that a significant number of vehicles parked in front of a restaurant means that the hospital is bound to be a good one. A person may therefore be motivated to eat at the restaurant once he sees the full parking lot. Most human behavior seems to be learned and in some instances, conditioned behavior can produce dangerous and negative outcomes (Pavlov, 1960). This is apparent in instances where an individual is conditioned to fear something and such fear becomes persistent and later associated with like or similar objects or scenarios. Aside from biology and learned components of motivation, cognitive components also have a significant role in motivation. The cognitive element is based on how the available information around a person is interpreted and how this information motivates individuals to act (Petri, 1997). There is a more introspective element to one’s behavior and motivation under the cognitive component. In this case, for an individual to be motivated to act based on this cognitive component, what he knows and how society impacts on his knowledge would likely affect his decision. For example, in knowing about the dangers of obesity and of not eating healthy foods, a person looking at himself in the mirror while eating may be motivated to eat less and to eat healthily (Petri, 1997). 3. Compare and contrast the biological and psychological reasons that people eat. In evaluating the psychological reasons, be sure to discuss how culture and socialization come in to play when people eat for psychological reasons. Eating is basically a natural biological function and instinct. Various biological theories have been suggested to explain this biological function. The stomach contraction theory by Cannon and Washburn explain that as the stomach contracts, people would feel the need to eat. The Glucose theory suggests that people eat when their blood sugar or glucose is low (Franken, 1994). The Fatty Acid theory on the other hand points out that the body responds to increase in fatty acids and the increase in fatty acids triggers our hunger pains (Franker, 1994). Another theory, the Heat Production Theory suggests that humans feel the need to eat when their temperature drops, as it increases, hunger pains decrease (Franken, 1994). Schwartz (2004) discusses that the gut-brain neural network is responsible for controlling food intake, including food portions. As stomach peptides act on this axis, they also create and modify the negative feedback signals which limit food intake during meals. The adiposity hormones as well as the hypothalamic neuropeptides also impact on food intake by affecting meal sizes and managing the impact of food-stimulated gastrointestinal sensory signals (Schwartz, 2004). Based on these biological functions, people are stimulated to eat and their food portions and frequency are dictated. Inasmuch as biology unavoidably triggers hunger pains and prompts us to eat, psychological functions also have a major role in eating. This is apparent among individuals with eating disorders and also among those who are obese or overweight. There is also an external clock which humans follow, one that routinely tells them it is time to eat (Hara, 1997). In effect, if it is 12 noon, this external clock tells them that they are supposed to eat. In some instances, this external clock triggers their hunger pangs and prompts them to eat (Hara, 1997). Hunger is also a learned psychological behavior where the smell, taste, color, and texture of food can often trigger hunger and subsequently, eating. Among obese individuals, the issue of satiety and hunger are important considerations in explaining their eating habits (Franken, 1994). The biological reasons behind obesity have long been established with studies on twins and adopted children yielding biological influence, not environmental influence (Stunkard, et.al., 1986). However, biology does not completely explain eating, especially among obese individuals. Socio-cultural practices also play a crucial role in eating with fastfoods, television commercials, and habits often dictate the eating behavior of individuals (Kopelman, Caterson, and Dietz, 2009). Fast foods offer enticing motivations to eat, especially with their delicious and attractive food presentation and choices. Culture and societal pressures may also create a negative effect on eating with many teenagers starving themselves in order to reach ideal sizes and shapes (Kopelman, et.al., 2009). In other words, cultural dictates of ideal sizes prompt individuals to not eat or to develop eating disorders which may involve binging followed by purging. Based on the above considerations, eating is driven by biological and psychological reasons (Hara, 1997). Humans are different from animals in their reasons for eating because animals eat only to feed a biological need, but humans may be driven by both biological and psychological needs to feed. For many experts, they believe that psychological and emotional eaters often end up experiencing issues including obesity and eating disorders because they are not fulfilling or they are exceeding their biological needs (Hara, 1997). 4. Evaluate Masters’ and Johnson‘s (1966) proposed theory of what physiological events occur during sexual arousal. When discussing their study, be sure to evaluate their research methods. What were some possible weaknesses in their approach? If you were to conduct this study today, how would you do it differently? Design your revision of their study. According to Master and Johnson, during sexual arousal, physiological events occur in the person’s body. These events include the excitement phase where there is initial arousal, followed by the plateau phase where there is full arousal; the orgasm stage follows and the model is completed by the resolution phase (Master and Johnson, 1976). These stages and physiological events are highly technical and observed in most instances. They specifically describe the physical responses to sexual stimuli and adequately detail the various changes which manifest in the sexually arouses individual (Silverberg, 2011). It also differentiates male and female responses during sexual arousal, including areas where physical arousal can be stimulated for either gender. These stages are however too technical and do not consider the sexual experience in terms of its personal meanings for each person (Hite, 1982). Moreover, in the process of research Masters and Johnson have not considered the cultural attitudes which relate to sexual behavior. Hite (1982) points out that 70% of women not having orgasms during intercourse are able to achieve it easily by clitoral stimulation. Masters and Johnson (1976) seem to suggest that clitoral stimulation can be achieved through thrusting during intercourse, and failure to achieve orgasm in this manner means sexual dysfunction. Hite (1982) opposes this reasoning and emphasizes instead that the sexual experience is a personal, not a social construct and the stages and phases of arousal may not be the same for all people; but differences in the sexual experience do not make the experience any less sexual or arousing. The research of Masters and Johnson (1976) also does not take into account the events or the behavior which lead up to the state of arousal. The element of desire is actually not even discussed by Masters and Johnson, and yet, this desire would not even lead to a state of arousal for most individuals (Keesling, 2005). The research of Masters and Johns (1976) also focus only on the responses seen, not the pleasure gained from each aspect of the sexual experience. In effect, sexual arousal was evaluated as a reactive activity, not a creative one. Sexual arousal is mostly based on interactions between the individuals engaged in the sexual act (Schwartz, 1984). Moreover, it is anchored on the active participation of the parties who may have different qualities which arouse their senses and eventually bring them to orgasm (Keesling, 2005). If I were to conduct this study today, I would study all the elements which impact on arousal, including the behavior and stimulation which would lead to a state of arousal. The cultural considerations and social mind-set for each respondent would also be included as variables in the study. Homosexual, transsexual, and other heterosexuals shall also be included as respondents in the research I would conduct. The study would be carried out as a long-term study where the respondents and their sexual responses would be studied on a wider time-line and based on both physiological and psychological variables. 5. Analyze the connections among arousal, attention, and performance and how they relate to human motivation. Arousal, attention, and performance are very much connected with each other, especially in terms of providing motivation for a person’s activity. Arousal and attention are the two elements which impact on performance, either driving him to peak or to unfavorable performance. Arousal is the state of physiological activation where the higher the arousal, the greater the activity in the sympathetic nervous system; eventually, this leads to higher levels of attention and mental processing (Hill, 2001). Arousal is different for each person and is based on biological rhythms and environmental triggers. The Drive Theory discusses that with higher levels of arousal, the performance of dominant responses would also increase. In effect, with higher drive or arousal given on habitual activities, the performance would improve (Hill, 2001). The Yerkes-Dodson law discusses the U-shaped relationship between arousal and performance (Cullatta, 2012). Low and high states of arousal often lead to minimum performances, but moderate arousal produces enough energy and momentum to produce a good performance in any task. For individuals wanting to motivate people to do something for them, the state of arousal must be based on moderate attention or levels. The Optimal Arousal Theory discusses drive and arousal to a certain point where it can improve performance, however, beyond a certain point, it would only interfere with the activities of a person (Hill, 2001). Arousal and attention also drives performance as it provides the necessary motivation for a person to work towards a certain goal. In sports activities, a person’s arousal or drive to reach the finish line or a certain goal would cause him to focus more to the one specific activity which would help him achieve his goal (Hill, 2001). With a higher level of arousal, his attention would be more heightened, thereby causing his performance to reach peak levels. What would arouse or motivate a person towards a greater peak performance is the desire to reach a certain goal – be it winning the race or winning a basketball game. Malhotra (2009) discusses that the desire to compete sometimes supports and triggers survival and success. Based on certain situations, however, naturally occurring motivation and arousal can transform an activity or behavior towards the pursuit of winning. Wanting to win however, also calls for competitive motivation. The desire to compete which is powered by a strong motivation to reach a certain goal is often based on a desire to win. The motivation in this case also includes the desire to win over others and to see others fail (Malhotra, 2009). This is usually apparent among bidders in auctions where they seek double purposes in winning and in seeing others lose. Their ability to control the bidding and to keep wagering their money is the drive which provides the necessary motivation for them to perform well (Malhotra, 2009). As such, the motivation in this case is based on higher states of drive where this drive leads to better performances and eventually a higher motivation to perform or work even better. 6. Appraise the sleep disorders insomnia and sleep apnea. Evaluate treatment for these two disorders. Insomnia and apnea are sleeping disorders which have been known to impact significantly on a person’s daily activities. Nabili (2012) discusses that insomnia is a symptom of a disease, and it is not a disease by itself. It is normally identified as the state whereby a person cannot or is having difficulty initiating and/or maintaining sleep. A perceived poor quality in one’s sleep is also apparent in insomnia (Nabili, 2012). Insomnia may be considered transient when it lasts for less than a week; when it lasts for one to three weeks, it is classified as short-term insomnia; and when it lasts longer than three weeks it is already considered chronic insomnia (Nabili, 2012). Insomnia may be attributed to a variety of reasons and underlying illnesses depending on how long they last, as well as the situational elements and medical conditions apparent in a patient. Short-term insomnia may be caused by temporary conditions like jet lag, changes in shift during work, unpleasant and loud noise, stress, discomfort, alcohol withdrawal, or surgery (Nabili, 2012). The more long-term causes of this symptom may include a psychiatric or physiologic medical issue. Physiological issues may include circadian rhythm disorders where the biological clock of a person is disturbed. Medical issues like Chronic Pain Syndromes, Chronic Fatigue Syndrome, Congestive Heart Failure, Acid Reflux Disease, or Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease may also lead to insomnia. This symptom may also have psychological causes including anxiety, depression, mania, and stress (Nabili, 2012). Treating insomnia is based on the treatment of its underlying cause. Transient insomnia can be corrected when its trigger can be managed. Medical attention is however needed when the insomnia is already chronic (Nabili, 2012). It is therefore important to identify the cause of insomnia and in most instances as soon as this cause is addressed, the condition is often easily resolved. For chronic insomnia therapies include sleep hygiene, relaxation therapy, stimulus control, and sleep restriction. Medical treatment with benzodiazepine, antihistamine, melatonin, and antidepressants are also utilized. However, they are only meant to provide temporary relief for the patient (Nabili, 2012). While insomnia manifests clearly in a person as it often causes major disturbances in a person’s biological rhythm, sleep apnea is not as apparent. In fact, a person may not even know he is suffering from the condition. Sleep apnea is a common disorder wherein there are one or more breaks in a person’s breathing, or where there are mostly shallow breathing observed while sleeping (National Heart Lung Blood Institute, 2010). There are breaks in a person’s breathing which can last for a few seconds and even a few minutes and they occur for about 5 to 30 times within the space of an hour. Normal breathing often commences again with a loud snorting sound. It is considered to be a chronic condition and a person shifts from deep to light sleep when breathing turns shallow. It then results to poor quality of sleep (NHLBI, 2010). It is common among the overweight, but it can also affect any one; small children with enlarged tonsils may also suffer from this condition. Treatment for apnea is based on the treatment of associated medical conditions which may include hypertension, diabetes, and obesity. Lifestyle changes may therefore be essential. Mouthpieces may also be used in order to relieve mild forms of this disorder (NHLBI, 2010). Breathing devices may also be used to manage this disorder. 7. Compare and contrast drug use, drug abuse, and drug addiction. Formulate a plan to help people overcome their drug addictions. Drug use, abuse, and addiction may sometimes be used interchangeably in common parlance, however, there are actual distinctions which can be made for the three terms. Drug use is the general term used to describe both therapeutic and recreational drug use (CDC, 2011). Therapeutic drug use often involves the use of drugs to treat an illness or a medical condition. The use is at its proper dosage and amount, as well as frequency and usage. Drug use may however also be recreational. In this case, it may also be qualified or termed as drug abuse (CDC, 2011). Drug abuse and addiction represents contrary ends of the same disease process. Drug abuse represents “an intense desire to obtain increasing amounts of a particular substance or substances to the exclusion of all other activities” (Anker, 2011). Drug addiction which is also known as dependence refers to the body’s physical addition to a specific drug. This dependence can eventually lead to physiological harm, as well as behavioral changes. Stopping its use can lead to withdrawal symptoms (Anker, 2011). Drug abuse is a common issue which affects all ethnic groupings and social divisions in the world. It also affects different individuals in different ways with some individuals being more prone to its effect and to addiction than others. Therapeutic drug use usually does not pose a problem, however, for some individuals who may later use the drugs for recreational purposes or for more than what they need medical help for, then its use is now considered a problem. It becomes an addiction and in some individuals, an abuse of drugs. For both drug abuse and addiction, they pose significant health threats to the abuser. They both lead to behavior problems including neglect of responsibilities at school, work, and home; it can also lead to other risky behaviors like driving while on drugs, using contaminated needles, and having unprotected sex; it can also cause legal issues which often lead to arrests; finally, and it can lead to social issues including isolation from family and friends (Anker, 2011). Drug abuse and addiction can be treated and managed through rehabilitation and therapy. Institutional help is needed for these individuals with a strong drug treatment or therapy applied (Robinson, et.al., 2012). This program would include a detoxification program and later therapeutic processes in order to assist the addict in dealing with the issues which have driven him to drug addiction. Detoxification must be carried out gradually in order to minimize withdrawal symptoms (Robinson, et.al., 2012). Cognitive-behavioral therapy is one of the therapies which can be applied as it helps abusers to break the pattern of cognition which often leads them to their drug-seeking behavior. For some individuals and under certain conditions, home-based therapies may also be used (Robinson, et.al., 2012). Support groups can also assist individuals to cope with their personal issues. It can help them connect well with other addicts who can sympathize with them and with whom they can share their hardships and burdens with. Under certain conditions, family therapy may also be utilized, especially in instances when the issue of drug abuse is based on family problems and issues (Anker, 2011). Reference Anker, A. (2011). Drug Dependence & Abuse. eMedicine Health. Retrieved 20 February 2012 from http://www.emedicinehealth.com/drug_dependence_and_abuse/page7_em.htm Benoit, W. (n.d). Cognitive Dissonance Theory. Persuasion. Retrieved 20 February 2012 from http://www.cios.org/encyclopedia/persuasion/Dcognitive_dissonance_1theory.htm Biehler, R. & Snowman, J. (1997). Chapter 11: Psychology Applied to Teaching. New York: Houghton Mifflin. Center for Disease Control and Prevention (2011). Therapeutic Drug Use. Retrieved 20 February 2012 from http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/drugs.htm Cullatta, R. (2012). Arousal. Retrieved 20 February 2012 from http://www.instructionaldesign.org/concepts/arousal.html Eibl-Eibesfeldt, I. (1989). Human Ethology. New York: Aldine De Gruyter. Franken, R. E. (1994). Human Motivation, 3rd ed. CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. Hara, T. (1997). Hunger and Eating. California State University. Retrieved 20 February 2012 from http://www.csun.edu/~vcpsy00h/students/hunger.htm Hill, G. (2001). A level psychology through diagrams, New York: Oxford University Press. Hite, S. (1982). The Hite Report on Men and Male Sexuality. New York: Ballantine Books Huitt, W. (2011). Motivation to learn: An overview. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, Georgia: Valdosta. Jean, E. (1999). Cognitive Dissonance Theory. University of Colorado. Retrieved 20 February 2012 from http://www.colorado.edu/communication/meta-discourses/Papers/App_Papers/Jean.htm Kail, R. & Cavanaugh, J. (2012). Human Development: A Life-Span View. New York: Cengage Learning Keesling, B. (2005). Sexual Pleasure: Reaching New Heights of Sexual Arousal and Intimacy. New York: Hunter House. Kosfeld, M., Heinrichs, M., Zak, P. J., Fischbacher, U., & Fehr, E. (2005). Oxytocin increases trust in humans. Nature, 435, 673-676. Kopelman, P. Caterson, I. & Dietz, W. (2009). Clinical Obesity in Adults and Children. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Lieberman, D. A., (2004). Learning and memory: An integrative approach, Belmont, CA.: Wadsworth/Thompson Learning. Masters, W. & Johnson, V. (1976). Homosexuality in perspective. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. Nabili, S. (2012). Insomnia. eMedicine Health. Retrieved 20 February 2012 from http://www.emedicinehealth.com/insomnia/page9_em.htm National Heart Lung Blood Institute (2010). How Is Sleep Apnea Treated?. NHLBI. Retrieved 20 February 2012 from http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/sleepapnea/treatment.html Malhotra,. D. (2009). The desire to win: The effects of competitive arousal on motivation and behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes. Meyer-Lindenberg, A., Hariri, A. R., Munoz, K. E., Mervis, C. B., Mattay, V. S., Morris, C. A., & Berman, K. F. (2005). Neural correlates of genetically abnormal social cognition in Williams syndrome. Nature Neuroscience, 8, 991-993. Petri, H. (1997). Four Motivational Components of Behavior. Revista Electronica de Motivacion. Retrieved 20 February 2012 from http://reme.uji.es/articulos/numero20/5-petri/reme.numero.20.21.four.motivational.components.of.behavior.pdf Robinson, L. Smith, M., & Saisan, J., (2012). Signs, Symptoms, and Help for Drug Problems and Substance Abuse. Help Guide. Retrieved 20 February 2012 from http://helpguide.org/mental/drug_substance_abuse_addiction_signs_effects_treatment.htm#understanding Schwartz, MF (1984). The Masters and Johnson treatment program for dissatisfied homosexual men. American Journal of Psychiatry, 141 (2): 173–181 Schwartz, G. (2004). Biology of Eating Behavior in Obesity. Obesity Research, 12, 102S–106S. Silverberg, C. (2011). Masters and Johnson's Description of Female Sexual Response: Four phase model of female sexual response. About.com Guide. Retrieved 20 February 2012 from http://sexuality.about.com/od/anatomyresponse/a/femalesexualres.htm Stunkard, A. J., Sorenson, T. I. A., Hanis, C., Teasdale, T. et al. (1986). An adoption study of human obesity. New England Journal of Medicine, 314:193-198 Read More