Gender and Consumption - Article Example

Gender identity is at the core of what it means to be a woman or a man. One develops a gender identity when one develops an image of oneself as either a female or a male, and this image fits with the convictions of what one believes to be a part of that given group (Kacen, 2000, p. 346). Moreover, gender identity is both a personal and a social construct, and is dependent upon the culture in which we live. Where we are and who we are with are the social cues that give meaning to ones gender identity, and identity depends upon how society views the essence of a man or a woman (Kacen, 2000, p. 346). This is what drove gender consumption in the modern era- men were men, and women were women. A mans identity used to be dependent upon his role as a provider and his place of employment this has been the traditional way that has defined the essence of the male identity in the modern society. This is known as the 塗egemonic gender identity(Vigorito & Curry, 1998, p. 137). Moreover, male consumption patterns were not just influenced by the hegemonic gender identity, but, in the post-Civil War era, were influenced by the Puritans (Bocock, 2000, p. 6). The Puritans had an ethic of asceticism, with not too much money spent upon men and boys, and the housing was sparse and not elaborate. The Puritan ethic dictated that British men during this period not spend money on jewelry, fine clothing and eating and drinking well, and these patterns were not economically driven (Bocock, 2000, p. 8). This morphed into contemporary society, in which, it is argued, Henry Ford is responsible for the increase in consumption, for he pioneered the idea that workers should be paid well, which led to more disposable income and, thus, more consumption (Gabriel & Yang, 1995, p. 9). In advanced capitalist societies, Ford made consumption more egalitarian, and less the province of the rich (Gabriel & Yang, 1995, p. 10). Moreover, modern consumption is also driven by the choices that were being offered in modern society, choices that were not offered in earlier societies, before mass production of goods became the norm (Gabriel & Yang, 1995, p. 11). This is illustrated by the British consumption of food as a percentage of their expenditures in the early 20th century, British families spent between one half and two thirds of their income on food; by the middle of the twentieth century, this number was only one third (Gabriel & Yang, 1995, p. 12). This mass production had a side effect as well, one that would influence the post-modern mans obsession with labels and designers branding became essential, as there were so many goods flooding the market, that companies needed to distinguish their goods from the multitude of other goods that were coming into existence. According to Naomi Klein (2000), this led to competitive branding and, ultimately, to the rise of designer labels, such as Calvin Klein and Ralph Lauren (Klein, 2000, p. 6). During this period, men were traditionally thought of as producers too busy working to bother with consuming marketers traditionally have catered to females, as they were considered to be the consumers to the male producers (Kacen, 2000, p. 347). Therefore, advertising and marketing in the modern era catered to women, with particular emphasis upon women in their traditional gender-defined roles looking beautiful and doing domestic chores, while men were in the background (Kacen, 2000, p. 348). This is how modernity treated the concept of gender consumption marketers provided consumers with products that were pre-packaged and fixed for each gender, and consumers used these products to maintain their identities (Kacen, 2000, p. 349). However, in the post-modern society, the concept of gender became less set, as did ones identity. Identity became a construct of consumption, in that people, both men and women, started using consumption not as a way to express ones identity, but to construct it - 澱rands are how we figure out who we are(Kacen, 2000, p. 349). This reflects the fluidity of an individuals identity, and reflects that gender identity is also a fluid concept, as opposed to a fixed attribute (Kacen, 2000, p. 349). Part of this was made possible by the Nikes and Tommy Hilfigers of the world who are not just selling products, but the image that their brand connotes. Therefore, mere manufacturing has been replaced by marketing (Klein, 2000, p. 4). Therefore, the post-modern male is no longer necessarily concerned with gender roles. No longer content to the strong, silent type who provides for his family and lets his wife do the purchasing, post-modern men have become consumers in their own right, and what they consume becomes the essence of who they are, just like with the stereotypical female. For instance, Woodruffe-Burton studied men who were designated as 都hopaholics- a moniker ordinarily reserved exclusively for females (Woodruffe-Burton, 1998, p. 303). The three men that she studied defined themselves in some way by their 田ompensatory consumption- in other words, they purchased to make themselves feel better. Ian was one such subject, and his shopping was prompted by boredom. That said, he was also quite passionate about the things that he consumed, waxing poetically about a Moschino jacket that he purchased for 180 pounds, and this was a jacket that he had to have 田ome hell or high water- and, when it was stolen, he 田ried a lot(Woodruffe-Burton, 1998, p. 306). Similarly, Pete is another man studied by Woodruffe-Burton, and he describes consumption in shopping in glowing terms such as comparing it to a good film that one anticipates, and getting a charge out of going into stores that have new items to peruse. Glenn is the third man studied, and he shopped to fill a void after breaking up with his girlfriend. Glenn saw his consumption as a way to construct a new identity after his old identity, the identity that was associated with the girlfriend, was no longer viable, stating that, through his comsumption, that he 屠ust wanted a change of image really...I just thought that the clothes would help me. I just thought that there was something wrong with me. And I thought maybe if do change myself I will have more luck(Woodruffe-Burton, 1998, p. 308). Therefore, the men studied by Woodruffe-Burton would seem to fit into the definition of the post-modern male. Contrary to the modern male, who was defined by his work and providing for the family and stereotypically did not care about consumption, these men used consumption to construct new identities and as a way to make themselves feel better and more worthwhile. Ian combatted boredom, as did Peter, who was always on the lookout for new items that he could consume to help him with constructing his identity as a man who was always on the cutting-edge of fashion and designers, and Glenn consumed to enhance his self-esteem and construct a new identity after a breakup. All of the men saw consumption as distinctly different than the hegemonic male would for instance, Peter got a 鍍hrillout of purchasing new clothes. The hegemonic male would never get this kind of thrill out of buying new clothes, or, even if he did, he would be loathe to admit this. Male grooming is also a part of this 渡ew manpost-modern consumption ethic. Sturrock and Ploch (1998) conducted a study on this particular category of male consumption, using an interpretist methodology, sampling ten males between the ages of 20 to 44. They found that men purchased grooming products as a way of enhancing and constructing their self-image. That is to say, by using a certain beauty product, the meaning that is behind the use was transferred to the image that was being presented such as using the right aftershave for the right occasion, and having a certain smell for social occasions and a certain smell for professional occasions. This goes into the image that the men were trying to present to the particular audience at hand, and also is a consideration in getting the interest of women (Sturrock & Ploch, 1998, p. 338). They also found that the men in the study were cognizant of aging, therefore they use anti-wrinkle cream and Oil of Olay. The men also felt that using skin products somehow makes them feel better when they are of ill-health, and some of the men saw skin products as a part of an overall 澱eauty regimenthat aided them in having softer skin on their body and face. Lastly, some of the men felt that using skin products, cologne and after-shave and the like as a way to pamper themselves such as the man who saw a nice moisturizer from Clinique as a pick-me-up from feeling down (Sturrock & Ploch, 1998, p. 341). The men in the two studies above all have assumed stereotypical female roles. The females are the ones who are supposed to get excited by shopping for new clothes, and feel complete when they purchase just the right outfit. The females are the ones who are supposed to indulge in 途etail therapy,buying new clothes and changing their hair when they breakup with a guy, as a way to make themselves feel better. The females are the ones who are supposed to pamper themselves at a spa with a nice facial, be concerned about moisturizers, and wearing the right perfume. The modern male is not supposed to be concerned with any of that. He is only supposed to be concerned with providing for the family, doing 杜anlythings like watch sports and drink beer with the guys, getting ahead at work and maybe indulging in male 鍍oys,such as sports cars and Playstations. According to the post-modern theory, however, these fixed gender roles no longer necessarily apply, as shown by the Sturrock & Ploch and Woodruff-Burton studies. However, it is not necessarily as simple as that. There is some indication that the post-modern male has not changed as much as these studies might suggest, or, alternatively, that the hegemonic male ideal persists and that the post-modern theory that fractured, fluid identities have replaced the fixed gender identities of the modern male has not borne fruition for all segments of the population. For instance, Margaret Jobling found that men are still 菟loddingly practicalwhen it comes to purchasing, looking for functionality and performance over brand names when it comes to skin care products (Tungate, 2008, p. 25). Moreover, the 杜etrosexual male,who is into skin and hair care products and the latest fashions - in other words, the males who were exemplified by the Sturrock & Ploch and Woodruff-Burton studies - has turned out to be a bit of a marketing aberration, composing a mere twenty percent of men, according to a look at the UK toiletry market in 2006 (Tungate, 2008, p. 25). And, contrary to the image put forth by Sturrock & Ploch and Woodruff-Burton of the man who is giddy at the thought of shopping for new clothes, and proud of their cologne and skin care products, men are, in reality, still adverse to shopping and shy about purchasing skin care products, which has led to a web-site devoted to men who are embarassed to be shopping for skin care products for themselves, Mankind.co.uk (Tungate, 2008, p. 25). Moreover, men are still not interested in fashion, with mens Outwear reporting in 2007 that 杜en over the age of 25 often dislike shopping to such an extent that their partners buy the majority of menswear for them(Tungate, 2008, p. 26). Therefore, there is confusing evidence about todays man. While the Sturrock & Ploch and Woodruff-Burton studies seem to indicate that the post-modern theory about gender is accurate, and mens gender identities are malleable and dependent upon consumption, Tungate would suggest that the hegemonic man the man who hates to shop, doesnt care about skin care, and lets his wife do the consumption for him still reigns and, perhaps, has never really left. Vigorito and Curry add another interesting wrinkle to this dichotomy. In their study, they found that mens magazines tended to emphasize men in their hegemonic role of provider, as opposed to his role as father. Meanwhile, womens magazines tend to portray men in their secondary role as family men. Men who read mens magazines have their provider identity strengthened, while women who read womens magazines come away with the notion that the man is more post-modern and less hegemonic and defined by traditional gender roles (Vigorito & Curry, 1998, p. 150). What these studies suggest is that, perhaps, the post-modern man pejoratively referred to as 杜etrosexual,who use designer labels and skin care to construct his identity and spoil himself is anecdotal, but still exists. And, the post-modern male who does not let his gender identity dictate his role in family life, as he takes an interest in his children and wife, as well as getting ahead in work, is perhaps a fantasy that has been dreamed up by the women of the world who see this post-modern male in action in the ads in her womens magazines. Of course, he also exists, but maybe not to the extent that the womens magazines might suggest. However, this post-modern male, along with the metro-sexual version of the post-modern male, seem to still be in the minority, despite the zeitgeist suggestion to the contrary. The hegemonic male still seems to dominate, and this is still the reality of male consumption. While the marketers may try to market to the men in the Sturrock & Ploch and Woodruff-Burton studies, the fact that they have not gained much foothold after all speaks volumes. Sources Used Helen Woodruffe Burton (1998), 善rivate Desire, Public Display: Consumption, Postmodernism and Fashion痴 創ew manInternational Journal of Retail and Distribution Management, 26/ 8, 1-13 Anthony J. Vigorito, Timothy J. Curry (1998), 閃arketing Masculinity: gender identity and popular magazines,Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 39 / 1- 2, 135-153 Mark Tungate (2008), 腺ecause he痴 worth it too,Marketing, Feb. 13th, 24-28 Avi Shankar et al (2009), 選dentity, consumption and narratives of socialisation, Marketing Theory, 9/1, 75-94 Fiona Sturrock, Elke Ploch (1998), 閃aking himself attractive: the growing consumption of grooming products,Marketing Intelligence and Planning, 16/ 5, 337-343 Jacqueline J. Kacen (2000), 賎irrrl power and boyyy nature: the past, present and paradisal future of consumer gender identity,Marketing Intelligence and Planning, 18/ 6-7, 345-355 Robert Bocock (2000), Consumption, London Gabriel,Y. and Lang,T. (1995) The unmanageable consumer, Sage: London Klein,N. (2000), No logo Read More