Ireland Social Change Since 1980 - Essay Example

Outline the key externl nd internl fctors tht you think my hve shped chnge in Irelnd since 1980, nd indicte which you think re the most significnt, nd why. Introduction Since the yer of 1980 Republic of Irelnd hs fced number of events tht hve ultimtely defined country's position on the globl mrketplce nd shped its socil nd politicl sitution. Vrious internl nd externl forces hve been centrl to the drmtic trnsformtion of the country during tht period. The politicl, socil, nd economic chnges resutled in Irelnd's membership in the Europen Union (EU) which ws especilly significnt. Irelnd hs been described s "Celtic Tiger" whose stellr economic growth rte during the pst decde hs given it one of the highest per cpit GDP levels in the EU. Much of this success hs been the outcome of dynmic socil progrms developed by Irish government nd dministrtive deprtments imed to chieve greter socil performnce. It ws bsiclly Irelnd's ttempt to provide good working reltionship within the country s well s to rech consequency in immigrtion policy nd interntionliztion process tht shped country's socil policy. The generl orienttion in setting socil politicl or economic gols ws reching greement with the United Kingdom tht would enble the two governments to chieve significnt progress in the serch for pece in Northern Irelnd. These nd other fctors of internl nd externl socil policy of Republic of Irelnd will be exmined in the following pper. Prticulr focus on the interntionl sources of politicl, economic, nd socil trnsformtion will be mde to cover the ptterns of the topic. It is rgued tht these influences hve been the primry source of chnge in Irelnd since 1980 nd hve produced significnt benefits s well s certin problems for Irish society. Together with pressures for chnge by modernizing elites within Irelnd, who themselves were motivted prtly by their interntionl perspective, these internl nd externl fctors of socil policy hve creted synergistic process of chnge tht hs trnsformed the nture of Irish society. Overview of Irelnd's socil policy since 1980 Due to Irish dispor nd close economic ties to Britin, Irelnd hs lwys hd significnt interntionl links nd strong position on interntionl mrket. But the trditionlism of Irish culture, reflected especilly by the profound nd powerful plce of the Ctholic Church, gve the ntion n insulr nd defensive qulity from independence through the 1960s. However by the erly 1990s the Republic of Irelnd hd received reputtion s highly dynmic, modern, nd successful ntion. Rpid economic growth in the 1990s hs resulted in high economic indictors nd nd result positive chnged in socil policy of the country. In 1996 per cpit gross domestic product (GDP) ws bigger thn the United Kingdom (UK) figure, nd growth since 1992 hs been especilly strong (Irelnd, 1997). In fct, through 1993-1999 Irelnd hd the highest GDP growth rte in the Europen Union (EU), nd its per cpit GDP by 1999 ws 112% of the EU verge (Europen Union, 2001). The consequences of culturl chnge produced verifictions to Irish economy nd prospects of its politicl sitution. In the erly 80th, Irelnd ws poor compred to the UK nd Europe's dvnced economies. But it ws not poor in comprison to the economies of Norwy nd nd Finlnd for exmple. (Kennedy, Giblin, & McHugh, 1988, pp. 14-15). Its popultion ws reltively literte, nd its trnsporttion fcilities, bnks, nd housing were reltively modern. lthough not industrilized, it nevertheless hd productive griculturl sector nd followed contemporry business prctices (Hughton, 1995). Of prticulr importnce ws griculturl reform prior to independence tht hd turned ntion where mny hd been exploited tennt frmers into n griculturl system chrcterized by privte ownership by independent frmers. long with significntly incresed interntionliztion of the Irish culture, lte 90th hve produced sound openness nd liberlism in the country (Gllign, 1996, 1998; O'Toole, 1996, pp. 11-22). Of gret importnce is the Good Fridy greement reched in pril 1998 tht creted opportunities for peceful settlement of the Northern Irelnd conflict. The greement ws n interntionl effort, including primrily the Republic of Irelnd nd the UK, but lso the United Sttes (U.S.) nd other interntionl prticipnts, working with Northern Irish politicl leders. Impct of Ctholic Church on the socil chnge of Irelnd Since 1980 Ctholic Church of Irelnd hd high public ttention (Inglis, 1987). Tht ws bsiclly due to often ttendnce of the church representtives to msses who in such wy delivered the vision of Church to the socil construct of society (McGreil, 1996, pp. 159-162). Recent survey dt regrding the issue indicte striking level of uthoritrin sentiment despite the democrtizing influences s the century progressed. s lte s 1966, 71% of Dubliners questioned greed tht " few strong leders would do more for the country thn ll the lws nd tlk" (Hrt, 1970, p. 386). Other fcets of Irish society were lso highly uthoritrin. Schools, run primrily by the Ctholic Church, encourged deference nd obedience. Stright Church interference on questions of public policy ws not usul, but Ctholic morlity influenced public policies in vrious wys such s strict censorship imposed on plys nd reding mterils (Inglis, 1987). Ctholic input to eduction nd overll sociliztion processes helped to inculcte vlues tht significntly esed the development of politicl institutions s well s fesible economic growth. ccent on truthfulness nd integrity, for exmple, contributed to the ttinment of workble greements in both politicl nd economic systems, while emphsis on fmily vlues hve reduced requirements for stte welfre services. Wht ws importnt nd influentil for Irish society - the fct tht , uthoritrin in its structure Ctholic Church gretly supported democrtic institutions of the new stte nd conducted the violent ttck on the fledgling stte (Schmitt, 1973, p. 53). It therefore contributed to the uthority of the new stte nd its government. In the southern stte, uthoritrinism here supported democrtic politicl development which lter resulted in the highly conservtive nd Ctholic culture of the Republic. It is rtionl to suppose tht democrtic politicl development in Irelnd ws not unvoidble nd tht n uthoritrin or semi-democrtic system might hve been creted. uthoritrin norms obstructed democrtic responsibility nd rection in wys such s limiting the propensity of citizens to chllenge uthority nd mking elites more opposed to politicl controls. Prticulrly, brutlity surrounding the orgniztion of the new stte might hve thrust uthoritrin elites into power nd encourged uthoritrin leders to set side democrtic processes to degree tht would hve ruined the democrtic potentil of the new stte. Obviously, modern chrcteristics contributed gretly to the democrtic evolution of Irelnd. Yet modern chrcteristics cn be well-mtched with undemocrtic forms of politicl orgniztion, s the history of the twentieth century mkes evident (Prezworski & Limongi, 1997). Impct of emigrtion/immigrtion on socil chnge pttern of emigrtion resulted in number of socil chnges. Let us first view sttisticl informtion on the process nd then discuss the impct of either its growth or decrese on the socil construct of Irelnd. The totl popultion in pril 2003 ws estimted t 4.04 million - the highest figure since 1871 when the census for tht yer recorded popultion of 4.05 million. The popultion incresed by 64,900 or 1.6 per cent compred with the previous pril. The nturl increse in the popultion (i.e., births less deths) for the period ws 33,300 while net immigrtion (the blnce between inwrd nd outwrd migrtion) contributed 31,600 to the nnul increse. The estimted number of immigrnts in the yer to pril 2004 ws 50,100 while emigrnts numbered 18,500 in the sme period. (http://www.cso.ie/) Both flows were down compred with the previous twelve-month period (see grph). The min fetures of the 2004 figures re: _ The excess of births over deths hs grown from 17,500 in the twelve-month period ending pril 1995 to 33,300 in the corresponding period to pril 2004. - Immigrtion hving peked t 66,900 in the twelve-months to pril 2002 hs fllen bck to 50,100 in 2004. - Nerly third (30 per cent) of immigrnts re ntionls of countries other thn the EU nd US, while just over third (34 per cent) of immigrnts re returning Irish Ntionls. 9 per cent of immigrnts re Chinese while 8 per cent re ntionls from Centrl/Estern Europen countries. - Emigrtion is t its lowest level (18,500) since the series begn in 1987. - 40 per cent of emigrnts went to countries other thn the EU nd the US, while 39 per cent of ll immigrnts originted from outside the EU nd US. - The ge profile of emigrnts ws younger thn tht for immigrnts. 54 per cent of emigrnts were ged 15-24 yers, while hlf of ll immigrnts were ged 25-44 yers. (http://www.cso.ie/) To provide visul overview of the tendency on emigrtion nd immigrtion process, the grph below is depicted: Grph 1: Source: Centrl Sttistics Office Irelnd: ttp://www.cso.ie/ ll in ll, the growth of popultion tht resulted from immigrtion since 1987 resulted in chnges of society s well s verifictions on the home mrket of Irelnd. (Kennedy, 1992, pp. 8-9). From the stndpoint of innovtion nd entrepreneurship, Irelnd my hve been limited by culturl vlues tht impeded rpid economic growth nd development (Grvin, 2000; Girvin, 1997; Kennedy, 1992; Lee, 1989). It should be noted, however, tht mny of the trditionl elites such s De Vler hd fvored simple, rurl pttern of economic nd socil orgniztion. Employment nd Eduction in Irelnd When speking of socil chnges within the country during the period tht is being tken into discussion it is needed to sy tht gret eductionl nd employment opportunities for women ppered nd women employment rights hve got quired ttention. Trends in employment policy re s follows: 28.9% of women employed in the Eduction nd helth sector in; only 6.6% of men were employed in the sme sector; in contrst, 17.5% of men employed in the Construction sector nd only 1.2% of women. (Tble 1) One of the mjor strtegies for economic development ws the violent courting of foreign compnies to set business in Irelnd. This strtegy ws viewed s encourging for the reson of economic growth s well s for the increse of employment opportunities for Irish citizens. Inwrd investment ws encourged through tx breks (e.g., low 10% tx on corporte profits, s well s other progrms). The Industril Development uthority nd other bodies were employed s vehicles for economic expnsion to encourge foreign investment nd to help shift the emphsis towrd industry rther thn griculture. Tble 1 Irelnd EU: Employment by economic sector, 2003 Source: Eurostt, LFS; CSO, QNHS Progrms to improve the eductionl levels of Irish workers were especilly importnt to socil chnge. In the erly 80th the government estblished progrm of free nd compulsory secondry eduction. It lso undertook rdicl expnsion of post-secondry eductionl opportunities. Eductionl reform hs produced highly educted popultion tht contributes strongly to Irelnd's ttrctiveness s site for the development or expnsion of fctories nd businesses. On the other hnd, there hs been criticism tht the inducements offered for investment by foreigners my hve been overly generous nd misdirected. The Telesis Report of 1992 mintined tht compnies ttrcted to Irelnd through government incentives were unsophisticted nd were not providing sufficient high-qulity jobs or mrkets for Irish subcontrctors (Finnegn & Wiles, 1995; Ntionl Economic nd Socil Council, 1992). There ws indequte ttention to domestic cpitl formtion, nd not enough stress on sectors likely to produce competitive dvntge (Ntionl Economic nd Socil Council, 1989, p. 216). The Culliton Report (Culliton, 1992) rgued tht much of the growth encourged by the Irish government did little to crete well-pying jobs, while suggesting chnges in eduction policy. However, criticisms of foreign investments might hve been underestimted my hve overlooked positive benefits from these foreign investments. mong other things, the rrivl of foreign mngers who followed modern business prctices contributed to the development of orgniztionl norms tht helped crete behviors consistent with economic survivl nd success in the contemporry world economy. To be sure, certin government progrms were shortsighted nd indequte or incomplete, nd progrms to improve competitiveness re continuing to be developed. In November 1998, for instnce, the government nnounced mjor inititive in the funding of technologicl nd scientific reserch t the university level, illustrting its commitment to mking Irelnd incresingly competitive in the world economy nd recognizing the need for new policies ("Funds to tune," 1998). The Europen Union nd Politicl dpttion No event since the end of the Irish Civil Wr in 1923 hs hd s gret n impct upon the economic nd politicl chrcter of the Republic of Irelnd s joining the EC in 1973. lthough the Irish government becme constrined in mny wys by EC policy, it lso gined significnt ntionl utonomy s well s economic opportunity. In 1973, for exmple, the UK ccounted for 54% of totl Irish exports; by 1994 tht figure hd dropped to 27.5% (Irelnd, 1996, pp. 64-65). In ddition, s one of the poorer members of the EC, Irelnd ws entitled to receive developmentl funds nd becme mjor beneficiry of EC funding. These finncil trnsfers contributed in mny wys to Irish economic development, with the overll intent of helping Irelnd become more competitive. (Mcleese & Hyes, 1995, pp. 278-282). The structurl (development) funds, Common griculturl Policy, nd other EU progrms enbled Irelnd to grow t much fster rte thn otherwise would hve been possible (Ketinge & Lffn, 1999). Irish politicins nd dministrtors from government deprtments nd stte-sponsored bodies prticipte regulrly in the institutions of the EU. Irelnd, of course, ppoints one member to the Commission, nd prticiptes in working prty groups covering policy issues being considered by the Commission or the Council. The Embssy stff in Brussels is Irelnd's lrgest nd focuses on EU business. The Court of Justice nd Europen Prliment hve less impct on policies of direct concern to Irelnd, but nevertheless constitute importnt components of Irelnd's involvement in broder economic nd politicl ren. s smll country, Irelnd lcks the dministrtive resources to keep close tbs on ll EU issues nd hs to prioritize bsed on the reltive importnce of issues. The dministrtive nd politicl links to the EU enhnce the power of the Toisech nd Cbinet vis--vis the Oirechts (prliment), nd the finncil stkes of EU policy decisions men tht Irish interest groups re ctive in Brussels s well s Dublin. The resulting clientelist connections t times could hve negtive implictions for the efficiency nd effectiveness of policy decisions. Irish politicins nd dministrtors hve employed effectively personl, networking style to increse their influence. s the scle of ctivity increses within the EU, however, this style my become less useful in milieu tht rewrds more forml pproches (Lffn & O'Donnell, 1998). Opinion polls show tht chnge in citizen identity hs been primrily from locl to stronger ntionl identity; few Irish men nd women choose Europe s the entity to which they owe their first llegince (Hrdimn & Wheln, 1994, pp. 133-134). On the other hnd, strong ntionl identity is consistent with more inclusive politicl orienttion tht includes both ntionl nd Europen levels. Strong support for Europen integrtion is reflected by voting on referend questions, while the Irish dispor gives the Irish government s well s citizens strong links to countries such s the U.S. s well s the UK. One of the most difficult contemporry foreign policy questions for Irelnd is the extent to which it will prticipte in the EU's Common Foreign nd Defense Policy. Irelnd is neutrl country, nd mny nongovernmentl orgniztions s well s politicl leders oppose mjor chnge in neutrlity. Of course, Irelnd hs distinguished record of prticiption in United Ntions pecekeeping opertions, but the development of n EU Common Foreign nd Security Policy hs necessitted rethinking of its erlier strong resistnce to ny offensive militry ctivities. s one mnifesttion of Irelnd's new pproch, it joined the Prtnership for Pece in 1999, lthough it is, of course, unlikely to join the North tlntic Trety Orgniztion. Irelnd lso hs committed troops to the EU Rpid Rection Force. Nevertheless, the Irish government emphsizes tht it will mke the finl decision concerning prticiption in ny ctul pecemking or crisis mngement opertions (Irelnd, 2000). In sum, membership in the EU drsticlly reduced economic dependence upon Britin nd led to politicl nd dministrtive chnges tht helped enble the Irish Republic to become highly effective competitor in the world economy nd to see the socil chnge. The competence with which the Irish government mnged its presidencies of the EU nd the effective dministrtive style of Irish men nd women within EU institutions hve enhnced the interntionl respect ccorded to Irelnd nd gretly ccelerted the development of strong interntionl perspective by Irish elites s well s the Irish electorte. The Liberliztion of Irish Society One of the most importnt consequences of the growth of interntionl influences hs been the drmtic liberliztion of Irish society since 1980. These chnges hve contributed to Irelnd's interntionl competitiveness nd fcilitted the pece process with respect to Northern Irelnd. In some instnces these chnges hve mde interntionl hedlines. Divorce, which ws illegl under the 1937 Constitution, becme legl in 1995 through constitutionl referendum. Restrictions on contrception s well s censorship hve been relxed. Even the bsolute position on bortion hs been modified slightly through referendum in 1992, in prt becuse of highly publicized cses, including one in which the government initilly prohibited 14-yer-old girl, who llegedly hd been rped, from trveling to Britin to obtin n bortion. In 1972 government-bcked referendum resulted in the removl of the constitutionl cluse giving the Ctholic Church "specil position" s the church of the gret mjority of citiz ens. lthough there lwys hs been freedom of religious prctice in independent Irelnd, the specil position cluse served not only s minor domestic irritnt; more importntly, it provided unionists in Northern Irelnd with n dditionl reson to fer nd distrust the Republic. key impetus for the liberliztion of public ttitudes were the mss medi, prticulrly television. The vilbility of British nd mericn progrmming ws crucil source of vlue chnge, but Irish television progrmming, such s the Gy Byrne Show, lso exposed lrge sectors of the Irish popultion to thoughtful discussions on rnge of socil issues such s premritl sex, homosexulity, nd other issues. Prt of the impetus for greter socil freedom in Irelnd is ttributble directly to government eduction progrms tht produced middle nd professionl clss more resistnt to unquestioning cceptnce of the techings nd socil norms of the Ctholic Church. The ecumenicl movement within the Ctholic Church mndted by the Vticn lso hs contributed to greter tolernce by citizens s well s by the Church. mong the consequences of these ttitude shifts hs been rdicl decline in the politicl nd morl uthority of the Ctholic Church. For exmple, ttendnce t Mss hs fllen significntly in recent yers (Hrdimn & Wheln, 1998, pp. 72-73). Prticulrly hrmful ws the publiction of cses of sexul buse by smll number of clergy coupled with n indequte response by the Church hierrchy. Criticisms by Ctholic ly people of the hierrchy over the hndling of these mtters indictes subtle shift in which the Church is viewed somewht more s powerful socil institution tht my be chllenged (Corish, 1996, p.168). It should be emphsized tht church ttendnce in the Republic remins quite high by interntionl stndrds nd tht the Irish public still holds the Church in high regrd. For exmple, populr support for the Ctholic Church is higher thn ny other institution in Irelnd, including the Dil (Hrdimn & Wheln, 1998, P. 81). The decline in the Church's bility to mold the thoughts of Irelnd's Ctholics nd to influence their voting behvior hs led to decline in the Church's influence vis--vis the government. The Church is no longer consulted routinely on sensitive issues nd tkes pin to void the ppernce of interfering in politicl mtters. mong the mny indictors of this phenomenon is the fct tht the three principl politicl prties--Finn Fil, Fine Gel, nd Lbor--fvored pssge of the 1995 constitutionl referendum on divorce, with the Ctholic Church strongly in fvor of the referendum's defet. From the stndpoint of moving towrd more modern nd tolernt society, ll of the bove-noted chnges cn be viewed s progressive. s Tony Fhey (1998, pp. 51-65) hs observed, however, the liberliztion of Irish society lso hs contributed to some of the negtive socil phenomenon of recent decdes, including incresed levels of births outside of mrrige s well s mritl brekdown. Becuse the Church hierrchy nd some Ctholic orgniztions hve been strong dvoctes for the poor nd other socilly disdvntged groups, the decline in the Church's influence contributes to the reltive inbility of these sectors of Irish society to gin greter benefits from government progrms (Hrdimn, 1998, p. 137). Of course, mny Irish citizens holding conservtive, trditionl vlues see liberliztion of s mjor loss for the qulity nd mening of life in Irelnd. The conflict between trditionl nd modern vlues constitutes continuing nd centrl democrtic struggle in Irish politics (Girvin, 1997b). Conclusion A number of external and internal social factors has influenced the course of social chage of Irish Republic since 1980. Employment, education, migration and immigration rates, interntionliztion of the country contributed significntly to the recent economic successes. Despite strtegic errors tht produced infltion nd lessened employment growth, the overll pttern of government-bcked economic trnsformtion helped produce positive chnge tht by the lte 1980s hd mde Irelnd one of the most successful of the world economies, t lest with respect to growth. Irelnd's 1973 entry into the EEC ws prticulrly crucil. lthough chronic poverty, long-term unemployment, nd other socil problems remin, it is cler tht Irelnd's citizens hve benefited in both mteril nd socil terms. Eductionl reforms, expnded job opportunities, nd broder rnge of economic nd personl choices reflect more dynmic, interntionlly connected ntion. Greter economic independence from Britin s well s greter freedom from the preferences of the Ctholic Church lso hve produced greter utonomy for the government on brod rnge of socil issues. To be sure, s smll stte, Irelnd's economic choices nd opportunities re highly constrined. The mny economic nd socil strictures creted by membership in the EU further limit the rnge of options vilble to Irelnd's politicl nd dministrtive elites. finl pttern of chnge concerns the beginnings of evolution towrd interntionl institutions connected with the pece process in Northern Irelnd. Whether or not the current phse of the pece process is successful, the interntionl coopertion behind the Good Fridy greement mkes possible the eventul chievement of vible institutions within Northern Irelnd s well s institutions linking north nd south nd the two islnds. Tht emergent politicl structures re unlikely to stisfy completely the spirtions of ny of the prticipnts my be source of strength s well s legitimcy. No other pttern of chnge will do s much to help both politicl systems of Irelnd cquire the stbility nd focus needed to nticipte, mnge, nd sometimes initite the economic nd socil chnges of the twentieth-first century. Bibliography: 1. Culliton, J. 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